KEY ISSUES IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT Andrew Basden ki@basden.demon.co.uk Phone: +44/0 1928 734 308 IMPORTANT DATES: DATE, Hand in Coursework Report: (to be determined) CONTENTS I Introduction II. Summary of Key Issues of ISD III. Aspects of ISD, IS Use, Human Life and Reality IV. Aspectual Analysis and Expressing Aspects V. Some Literature: Books and Papers VI. Assessment Glossary and Abbreviations I. INTRODUCTION Welcome to the module (lecture series) called Key Issues in Information Systems Development. KIISD is a Masters-level module that offers the student a broad and rich understanding of the key, or main, issues that are important in the development of information systems. Information systems development (ISD) is the constructing of information systems (IS) for human use, using information technology (IT). Since this module is at Masters level, it does not attempt to teach information systems development. Rather, it assumes that you already know something about ISD - be it programming, IS testing, systems analysis, computer architectures, or management of ISD projects. For example, you might have taken a course on computer ISD, or on systems analysis, or on computer programming. Or you might have gained experience of programming in industry or by programming computers at home. Or you could have been employed as a systems analyst or you could have managed IS projects in industry or government. Even building a website is experience that would help you make sense of this module. If you have none of this experience, then you might find some things do not make sense until you learn about them. I suggest you make an effort immediately to read up on ISD. Try Wikipedia. Or find books in the library. AGENDA The module consists of 10-12 lectures, covering the following: 1. Introduction of ISD as a practical process (e.g. Client Centred Methodology) 2. ISD as Multi-aspectual Human Activities 3. Aspects of the Overall ISD Project 4. Aspects of Anticipating Use 5. Aspects of Creating the IS 6. Aspects of IS Content: Knowledge Elicitation 7. Overview of Aspectual Analysis 8. Review of Module 9. Group Presentations 10. Deadlines for handing in Written Work MODULE OVERVIEW Information systems have to be developed. Usually an IS is developed by a team of people cooperating in a project, and then delivered to those who will make use of it - though development carries on after that, improving the IS. Experience over the past four decades or more has shown IS development (ISD) is not merely a task of engineering a technical artefact, but is a complex process involving many aspects: those of analysis, planning, communication, maintaining good social relationships, resource management, among others, and that the best ISD projects are ones that take seriously legal and technical issues, morale and vision, and even the aesthetics of programming. Over the years, many methodologies have been developed to guide this process, some giving guidance to programming, some of knowledge elicitation, others to managing the whole project, and so on. This Module This module does not teach ISD, nor any of the activities that make it up, such as programming, system analysis, IS project management, or knowledge elicitation. Rather, assuming you have a basic knowledge of these activities, it examines the main, or key', issues relevant to them so that you gain a good overall understanding. This understanding will help you in practice. The student is expected to know something about ISD already, whether this is practical experience, an undergraduate course on ISD, knowledge of a programming language, or knowledge of any ISD methodologies. The module aims to help the student gain some understanding of the whole, broad phenomenon that is ISD, so that they can place their existing knowledge within this wider framework, and, beginning to appreciate that what they already know is only part of much richer picture, they might become excited about ISD as a whole. Knowledge Based Systems and the Client Centred Approach It is recognised, however, that some students will not have much experience of ISD activities. So we provide at the start a book that describes some of the ISD activities in building knowledge based systems: 'Client Centred', by Basden, Watson and Brandon. Knowledge based systems are information systems that encapsulate some representation of human knowledge in order to work well in their domain of application. An example is a legal expert system, which can advise on how to write a will. To some extent, most pieces of software may be seen as knowledge based systems, because most encapsulate at least some human knowledge. Example: a web site contains human knowledge, a SatNav contains human knowledge of the country and how to navigate. The student is expected to read a substantial part of the Client Centred book during the first two weeks of the module, and then other parts of it thereafter. Each student receives one copy of the book for their own use, and it is recommended that you take it away when you leave and refer to during your professional life. Aspects of ISD However, Client Centred is NOT the main part of the module. What is the main part of the module is what are called 'aspects'. Each activity of ISD is multi-aspectual. In this module we take an 'everyday' attitude to ISD, so that we can be open to all the aspects you might encounter in reality. Aspects are spheres of meaning of everyday life, giving us different ways a thing can exist, different types of rationality, different types of property, and so on. They are also spheres of law, giving us different ways of being good and bad. Because of the many aspects that are meaningful in ISD, some of which are mentioned above, this module makes reference to an important multi-aspectual philosophy, that of the late Herman Dooyeweerd (1894-1977). Dooyeweerd's philosophy is outlined on The Dooyeweerd Pages, which the student who is interested might explore on "http://www.dooy.info/" - though knowledge of Dooyeweerd's philosophy as such is not expected to be learned during this module. Each aspect is a sphere of meaning - a way in which things can be meaningful. As such, each aspect is the central core of a scientific area. For example: You will be introduced to these aspects early on in the module. ** Please study this table, and try to identify in which aspects you have experience in life. Students in the past have very much liked the aspects. I hope and trust you will too. I. ASPECTS OF ISD, IS USE, HUMAN LIFE AND REALITY What are aspects? In everyday language, aspects are different ways in which a situation is meaningful. For example we might talk about the financial and legal aspects of a business; we might talk about the biological, psychological, social, financial, ethical and religious aspects of our everyday lives. To be more precise (as philosophers like to be) aspects are 'spheres of meaning'. They are ways in which things can be meaningful. Aspects are ways in which human life can be worth living. To say aspects are spheres of meaning is to say that each aspect centres on some kind of kernel meaning (or central meaning), but is surrounded by a lot more - sometimes it is called a constellation of meaning. For example the kernel (or centre) of the psychological aspect is feeling, sensing, responding - but around this are lots of different kinds of feeling such as feeling of achievement, feeling of beauty, feeling of justice or injustice, and so on. Aspects are also 'spheres of law' - which is to say: ways in which life can be Good and Bad, beneficial or detrimental. For example, in the biotic (biological) aspect, health is good, disease is bad, in the social aspect, friendship and respect are good, enmity and disrespect are bad, in the economic aspect, prosperity and carefulness are good, poverty and waste are bad. Why Bother With Aspects? In one word: to understand complexity. » Aspects, as spheres of meaning, give us a way of understanding the complexity of things happening around us, and of our own involvement in them. » Aspects, as spheres of law, give us a way of understanding the complexity of different ways in which life can be good or bad. It can be good in one way, but bad in another - e.g. a business that makes a profit (economic good) but demands employees sacrifice their social lives (social and ethical bad). This applies to ISD. ISD is one complex part of human life. The key idea on which this module is based is that if we function well in all the aspects, then ISD will go well, but if we function poorly in any aspect, then ISD might go badly. The aspects, as spheres of meaning, help us separate out what it is meaningful to focus on in trying to achieve good ISD - aspects help us see the key issues in ISD. What Aspects Are There? Maslow's famous hierarchy of needs is a suite of aspects. Checkland's '5 Es' (Efficiency, Effectiveness, Efficacy, Elegance, Ethicality) form a suite of aspects. There are many more. Arguably the best suite of aspects currently on offer comes from a Dutch philosopher, Herman Dooyeweerd (1894-1977). His suite is more compehensive than the others, is better thought out, and is grounded in careful philosophical thought. So this is the one we will use in this module to understand 'Key Issues in ISD'. Dooyeweerd delineated fifteen aspects (or spheres of meaning and law): - quantitative - to do with amount, counting of things - spatial - to do with space, which is continuous - kinematic - to do with movement - physical - to do with energy, mass, forces, etc. - biotic / organic - to do with life functions - psychic / sensitive - to do with sensing, response, feeling, emotion - analytic - to do with distinction and clarity - formative - to do with our ability to shape things, concepts, organisations, etc., and with technology and history - lingual - to do with symbolic signification: documentation, programming, etc. and providing the basis for communication - social - inter-personal relationships and social institutions and structures - economic - to do with frugality, resources, and management of these - aesthetic - to do with harmony (as in music), play, fun, interest, surprise, etc. - juridical - to do with 'what is due' to all, and legal rules and enforcement - ethical - to do with self-giving, generosity, going beyond what is due - faith / pistic - to do with beliefs, vision, commitment. Each of these is a sphere of meaning, and of law (good and bad). They are taken from the suite of aspects by the Dutch philosophy, Herman Dooyeweerd, and may be explored on: II. SUMMARY OF KEY ISSUES IN ISD This is a list of the 'Key Issues' of ISD that this module seeks to help you understand. Many of the lectures will refer to this list. Setting the Scene 1. Approach to Understanding ISD: Everyday attitude rather than (r.t.) theoretical attitude. 2. Information system (IS) comprises: - not just the technical artefact - but also its human context of use. Example: for effective use, the people who use the IS must be trained. 3. Three things about ISD as such: 3a. ISD looks to future possibility - many types thereof. 3b. ISD recognises and must be guided by responsibility - for many things. 3c. ISD is usefully guided by methodology - this is why many methodologies have been devised. The Nature and Challenge of ISD 4. ISD is undertaken: 4a. by humans (r.t. by logical/managerial processes) usually in a team 4b. for humans (r.t. for economic return or technical excellence) 4c. in a diverse world (r.t. in isolation) Three types of challenge: - to ensure we consider all human issues in the ISD process - to ensure we consider all stakeholders - to ensure we consider all the diversity. How to meet that challenge? 5. The complexity and diversity of ISD. 5a. 'by humans': Working on an ISD project is governed by many types of norm (r.t. merely economic, logical or managerial norms). Therefore there are many types of responsibility and methodology should take these all into account. 5b. 'for humans': When in use, the IS is meaningful in many diverse ways, some of them unexpected and unforeseen during the ISD project. 5c. The world in which the IS is situated is meaningful in many different ways (r.t. only its formal purpose in an organisation). Therefore there are many types of possibility, and methodology should take the diversity of meaning into account. Therefore, there are many aspects of all three that must be taken into account. It is useful to have some idea what aspects need to be taken into account. At the end is a list of aspects that can be useful, and which will be referred to in this module. Human living is multi- aspectual functioning: a functioning in each of these aspects. 6. In ISD there are at least four multi-aspectual human functionings intertwined: - The ISD project as a whole - Anticipating future use of the IS - Creating the IS - Acquiring knowledge to encapsulate in the IS These form four key issues which will be considered separately. For each, various methodologies have been devised, for example: - The ISD project as a whole: Prince, CMMI, SDLC - Anticipating future use of the IS: SSM (Soft systems methodology) - Creating the IS: e.g. software development methods, Agile SDMs - Acquiring knowledge to encapsulate in the IS: e.g. MAKE The ISD project as a whole 7. Here we consider the ISD project as a whole - from beginning to end. The focus is on facilitating the whole project, keeping all the various functionings together, keeping the team together, etc. Most methodologies focus on the analytic, formative, lingual and economic aspects. Very few focus explicitly on the other aspects. - quantitative - - spatial - - kinematic - - physical - - biotic - anyone ill? - psychic - is everyone happy? - analytic - clear objectives? - formative - well-thought-out plans? - lingual - good communications within team, with those outside? good recording - social - good relationships within team? good respect? good structures of leadership? good relationships with those outside? - economic - good management of budget, time, expertise? - aesthetic - orchestrating the whole project (so that all people and things play their part) - juridical - the contract? do other stakeholders receive their due? - ethical - attitude in team: generous, or self-centred? - faith (certitudinal, 'pistic') - vision of the project, morale, loyalty Anticipating Use 8. Anticipating future use of the IS - we seek to understand how the IS will be used, what the benefits and detrimental impact will be, etc. In this, we seek to ascertain the user requirements or needs, but we also do more: we anticipate how using the IS will affect those who use it and other stakeholders - benefits and detrimental impact will be, etc. 'Use' (human use of computers) is itself three multi-aspectual human functionings: - HCI (human-computer interaction) - ERC (engaging with represented content) - HLC (human living with computers) Each is multi-aspectual, but in a different way. Will using the IS ... Does the methodology help ensure that the IS in use will ... - quantitative - - spatial - - kinematic - - physical - - biotic - - psychic - - analytic - ... help users more clearly understand what is important in their work or life? - formative - ... help users achieve more effectively? or less? ... make users more or less creative? - lingual - ... help users communicate better or worse? - social - ... help users be more or less sociable? - economic - ... help users conserve or waste resources? (e.g. time, people, power (climate change)) - aesthetic - ... be fun or boring? ... help users harmonise or fragment their lives and work? - juridical - ... ensure that all stakeholders receive their due, or will the interests of any stakeholder be damaged? (esp. those often forgetton) - ethical - ... make users more selfish and self-centred, or more generous and self-giving? - certitudinal ('pistic') - ... enhance or damage vision? ... enhance or damage faithfulness? Creating the IS 9. Creating the IS refers to design and construction of - the technical artefact - the human context of use. Creating the technical artefact (program, system, database, website, etc.) involves technical design, programming, testing, documentation, etc. Creating the human context of use involves planning the human and technical relationships, defining roles in relation to the IS, establishing rules and procedures, training, perhaps even hiring new people, etc. Examples of issues to consider (of creating the program (P:) or the context of use (X:)) (and which a good methodology will help you consider): - quantitative - - spatial - - kinematic - - physical - - biotic - - psychic - - analytic - P: concepts (variables) clear? X: clear what difference the IS will make? - formative - P: structuring of data, design of algorithms; bug fixing and getting it working! X: planning its context - lingual - P: documentation. X: training users. - social - P: relationship with other programmers (e.g. programmer-teams). X: organisational structures. - economic - P: program efficiency; UI screen area, etc. X: resources required to use the IS properly. - aesthetic - P: style of UI; 'beauty' of the program. X: Making use enjoyable; harmonising with its usage context. - juridical - P: doing justice to the information and knowledge (no short-cuts!). X: ensuring appropriate to context. - ethical - P: loving your program. X: ? - certitudinal ('pistic') - P: overall vision for the program. X: preparing the users to know why this IS is good. Paper to discuss: Knuth DE (1984). Literate Programming. The Computer Jnl 27(2):97-111. Knowledge Represented in the IS, and Acquiring it 10. To create the IS (both parts) requires acquiring knowledge to represent in the IS - whether written into the program, stored in the database, or encapsulated into rules and training. Traditionally, this has been seen as two stages: - knowledge elicitation - knowledge representation (programming) one after the other, but experience has shown that the very act of representing knowledge actually stimulates new insight and new knowledge emerges. So it is better to see them as occurring together. Examples of question to ask about computer game: Is it realistic in each of the following aspects, or, where the game deliberately goes against such reality, does it still make sense? - quantitative - Can character gain a feeling for amounts of things easily? - spatial - Can character orientate themselves? - kinematic - How easily can character move around? - physical - Are solid things solid? Does force push or hit things? - biotic - Eating, drinking, resting, etc.? - psychic - Does the character have realistic feelings? Can they hear or see in the game? - analytic - Can the character identify things they come across? - formative - Does character or player have to make plans? Construct objects? - lingual - Can character or player make notes, or correspond with others? Are there signs or notes to read? - social - Does character operate alone or in group? Friends or enemies? - economic - Does character have to be careful to obtain and conserve various resources? - aesthetic - Is playing fun? Surprises? - juridical - What are the laws within the game? What is due to each type of character? - ethical - If the character is generous or self-giving, does this improve the game or its atmosphere? - certitudinal ('pistic') - What is the character about in the game? Is loyalty and commitment rewarded? Is there realistic representation of religion? Examples of questions to ask about a knowledge base or knowledge management system or web sote: (a) Which aspects are most important in its content? (b) Do all the other aspects in its content support these? (c) Is any aspect ignored or overlooked? III. ASPECTUAL ANALYSIS AND EXPRESSING ASPECTS This looks at types of aspectual analysis and ways of expressing the results. There are several things we might wish to do: - to understand something, in a rich, multi-aspectual way - to critique something, showing what is good and not so good - to make suggestions to improve something. The 'something' might be a concrete situation or thing, or it might be a general thing such as a set of guidelines or a theory. To do these, there are several types of things we can express in terms of aspects. - what is happening in each aspect in something - to ensure that all aspects are covered (checklist) - to highlight a missing aspect - to highlight aspects that are receiving too much attention - to stimulate discussion about balance or imbalance in attention to aspects - the different kinds of attention we give to each aspect - benefits and detriment, good and evil 1. ASPECTUAL ANALYSIS Analyse the thing, examining every aspect of it. Use the aspects to guide your thinking about it. Analysis can proceed in three ways: 1. Go through each aspect in turn, from quantitative to pistic, asking in what ways the thing expresses this aspect. 2. Go through each aspect in turn, in the reverse direction, from pistic to quantitative, asking in what ways the thing expresses this aspect. 3. Begin with the most obvious aspects, then proceed to ones that these remind you of, and finally ask about any aspects not yet covered. However, in practice, one tends to cycle round and come back to others. And even for 1 and 2 you might begin not with the terminal aspects, but one of those near them, e.g. instead of the pistic, you might begin with juridical or ethical. Which to use, and when? - 3 is probably the most useful. It is the best one to use when interviewing others, since it begins where they are rather than with an 'aspectual task'. - 1 and 2 can be useful when you are observing as onlooker. - 1 can be useful to give others, or even yourself, practice at thinking about aspects, because it begins with 'easy' and 'simpler' aspects and proceeds to the richer ones. Also, since the quantitative, spatial and kinematic aspects of something are unlikely to be particularly important without reference to other aspects, mistakes made in them do not matter much, so they are the good ones to practice on and get yourself or others used to thinking aspectually. - But, if you are well-versed in aspectual analysis, 2 is better than 1 since it begins with the most meaningful aspects. However, I think the most useful types of analysis I undertake are not so structured as those. Rather, I find myself sensitive to forgotten or non-obvious or overlooked aspects. For example, the child's playground at Castle Park, Frodsham has a small wooded area one side. Suppose we were to ask mothers why they like the playground. They would probably mention safety, and the range of equipment available. They might also say something general about 'nice surroundings'. But they probably would not mention the wooded area s such. But my intuition tells me that the biotic aspect of the trees is more important than we might expect. This would lead me to ask a specific question to expose this aspect, such as "Suppose that instead of trees there was a concrete wall; would you still come so often?" A leading question, perhaps, but one designed to uncover a specific aspect. I would not ask about the aspect as such, and might not even think about it as an aspect, but I would simply be aware of things that exhibited the overlooked aspect and ask about them. 2. UNDERSTANDING To understand a thing or situation aspectually, collect statements about each aspect of the thing, and then look at the whole picture. There are various ways of doing this. 2.1 Analysis of texts This might involve an analysis of text. For example, Mitev [2001] discussed the failure that was the early SNCF (the French national railways) Socrate rail ticketing system: "Technical malfunctions, political pressure, poor management, unions and user resistance led to an inadequate and to some extent chaotic implementation. Staff training was inadequate and did not prepare salespeople to face tariff inconsistencies and ticketing problems. The user interface was designed using the airlines logic and was not user- friendly. The new ticket proved unacceptable to customers. Public relations failed to prepare the public to such a dramatic change. The inadequate database information on timetable and routes of trains, inaccurate fare information, and unavailability of ticket exchange capabilities caused major problems for the SNCF sales force and customers alike. Impossible reservations on some trains, inappropriate prices and wrong train connections led to large queues of irate customers in all major stations. Booked tickets were for non-existent trains whilst other trains ran empty, railway unions went on strike, and passengers' associations sued SNCF." Each phrase seems to be of a certain aspect, e.g. "sued SNCF" is juridical. If we collect these, then we can distribute phrases among the aspects as follows: Table 1. Aspects of Socrate Use A variant on this is to collect quotations from a variety of sources. 2.2 Direct Analysis An alternative to this is to analyse something directly, rather than using texts. Maybe by observation or by interviewing. This too can provide a number of facts about the thing in each aspect. For example, an analysis of the Elsie expert system yielded: Table 2. Aspects of Elsie Such tables express the multi-aspectual functioning that is the thing. 2.3 Interwoven Multi-aspectual Functionings But such aspectual analyses can be taken further. In the case of Elsie, we might feel that some of the statements in each aspect are somehow different from others. With a bit of reflection, we might separate them out as follows. What this expresses is that there are several multi-aspectual functionings intertwined (in this case HCI, ERC, HLC: human-computer interaction, engagement with represented content, human living with computers): Table 3. Aspects of HCI, ERC and HLC in Elsie 2.4 Multi-aspectual Knowledge Elicitation (MAKE) A rather different method, developed by Mike Winfield, involves looking at concepts that are meaningful in various aspects and linking them together. This can yield an aspect map such as follows: Figure 1. Aspect map generated in Multi-Aspectual Knowledge Elicitation The steps of the MAKE process may be seen as: 1. Introduction (e.g. explanation of kernel meanings of aspects, and obtain statement of requirements) 2. Identify a few (e.g. a couple) important aspects. 3. Focus on one of these aspects and specify any laws, axioms, data, definitions, and constraints that apply to the domain. 4. Identify as many concepts as possible that lie in this aspect. (Note: May need to check the concepts at a later stage to ensure they fall within the correct aspect.) 5. Apply Low Level Abstraction to each concept, which needs, or is thought to need exploding. 6. Repeat steps 3-6 as necessary. 7. Use the aspectual template to identify any new aspects, which may apply to the concepts specified (build bridges between concepts and aspects), and return to step 3. Low Level Abstraction was a concept that Winfield developed from the 1991 edition of Clouser [2005] and refers to becoming aware of the various aspectual properties of things yet without isolating them from the things themselves. 3. CRITIQUE So far we have sought to understand a thing. But to critique a thing, we need to go further, and interpret it relative to some normative standard. - Informal or unstructured critique, such as when involved in a discussion, and aware that certain aspects are being over- emphasised while others are ignored. - Structured critique, such as when contracted to provide consultancy advice or write a report, or when undertaking research. 3.1 Unstructured critique. Keep a mental note of which aspects the discussion covers. Be aware of which aspects are often overlooked, such as the latest aspects (some of aesthetic to pistic). Be aware of which aspects are often over-emphasised in western culture (economic, formative and analytic) or in anti-western culture (biotic, psychic, social). How to present this? Can gently suggest which aspects are over- or under-emphasised, usually in terms of something meaningful in those aspects rather than naming the aspect itself. Often by means of a question, e.g. "Are we overlooking issues of justice here?" 3.2 Structured critique - Aspectual Balance. Interpretation involves applying a normative standard. The aspects provide two normative standards: - balance: all the aspects should be given due consideration, none over- or under-emphasised - laws: each aspect is itself normative, defining what is good and what is bad. Very often, if we ignore an aspect, then we also transgress its laws, so the two are intertwined. Look at the lists of things in each aspect found during our analysis. Is there a lot more in some aspects than in others? For example, an analysis of Alexander's 'design patterns' shows: Table 4. Aspectual spread of Alexander's patterns Each number is a pattern that guides architects in designing a building, and three main things are considered: construction of the building, the building as something in which human life takes place, and the town in which it is situated. Balance can be considered in three parts: - Notice the long lists against the physical and aesthetic aspects in the Construction column, indicating that perhaps architects might give too much emphasis to these matters. Then the social, sensitive (psychic) and aesthetic aspects are emphasised when Alexander considers buildings. - Now look for aspects which are missing or with very short lists. For example, ethical has a short or null list in all three columns. And, surprisingly, lingual is also under- represented. - Now ask: it is reasonable for these aspects to be under- or over-represented? For example, we might expect that when considering construction of a building the physical and formative aspects would deserve more consideration. We find the physical has a long list, but instead of the formative we have a long aesthetic list. That architects tend to be over- concerned with aesthetics explains the long aesthetic list, but why is Alexander so little concerned with formative activity? Think: is it reasonable for the lingual aspect to be so under- represented in all three columns? In this case we have analysed a set of guidelines, and then it is usually best simply to look at aspectual balance. But when analysing concrete situations, we can take aspectual norms into account. 3.3 Structured Critique - Aspectual Norms Taking the normativity into account, and differentiating good from bad, is often more useful when analysing concrete situations rather than guidelines. Each aspect has norms. For example, according to the juridical aspect, justice is good, injustice is bad. The norms of the aspects are summarised in the following table. Table 5. Dysfunction or evil in each aspect An analysis of aspectual normativity of a situation would look at the ways in which the situation exhibits either good or bad in each aspect. Note that this helps us cope with things that exhibit both good an bad characteristics, such as something that is beautiful and yet unjust, or just and yet ugly. A useful visual device that helps in such normative analysis is known as the aspectual fir tree, in which the amount of positive and negative functioning in each aspect is shown by the length of two bars, negative to left, positive to right: Figure 2. Fir tree of aspectual repercussions This (totally fictitious tree) could represent the use of a geographic information system. It shows major benefits in the spatial aspect (obviously!), the analytical (helping us clarify where we are) and the lingual (e.g. helping us communicate our position). But there might be dis-benefits in the ethical aspect (e.g. making the user selfish), pistic (e.g. user tends to focus too much on location and this reduces their loyalty to others), the juridical (... and they overlook the rights of others). Notice how in some aspects there are both benefits and dis-benefits. But, as a pseudo-numerical device, the aspect tree can give an over-simplified picture if we are not careful. The following guidelines should be noted:  Never take the length of a bar as some kind of absolute value of aspectual functioning, and never compare two bars of similar length to conclude that functioning in one aspect is 'better' than in another.  But look at the overall patterns and groups. Often, as in Fig. 4-3, the main positive functioning or benefit lies in the earlier aspects, while the main negative functioning lies in the later ones. This should give cause for concern because the impact in the earlier aspects is likely to be more visible and to accrue in the short-term while the detrimental impact in the later aspects might become manifest only over the long term. This gives a false impression of the 'success' of a computer project if evaluation is undertaken too soon.  Then look at the longer bars. Do they truly indicate major repercussions or functionings, or do they indicate undue attention to these aspects during analysis? Make a specific study of these aspects, to determine which it is.  Look likewise at the short or zero bars. Were these aspects overlooked during analysis? Make a specific study to check, then redraw the tree.  Remember that everybody's understanding of the aspects is variable -- by interviewees, authors and analysts -- even though we all begin from an intuitive grasp of their meaning . So, any further analysis undertaken should include appropriate checks. In this way, the aspect tree device is not an end in itself so much as a stimulant to focus further analysis, which could be carried out using Winfield's MAKE method, described below. It can sometimes be useful to separate out aspectual functioning from aspectual repercussions, in two such fir trees side by side. For example, for Mitev's description of the Socrate failure, we can make a simple count of the number of times each aspect is referred to (as expressed by the phrases in the quoted text), either as a functioning or as a repercussion. We obtain the chart illustrated in Figure 4-4. Figure 3. Aspectual view of Socrate failure Even though only a single paragraph has been analysed -- and so this picture will be grossly misleading -- several things become clear: that this failure involved negative functioning in many aspects, not just the technical (formative), that the aspects in which the significant negative repercussions occur might not be those in which the negative functioning occurs, and that the most serious repercussions (that Mitev was interested in) were in the juridical aspect. That Mitev was not aware of Dooyeweerd's aspects, but merely adopted a lifeworld stance, is testimony to the power of this approach. The aspect tree device may be used for both retrospective analysis, as here, or prospective analysis, during design or prediction. It may be a single tree, showing either functioning or repercussions or both together, as in Fig. 4-3, or one in which functioning and repercussions are separated, as in Fig. 4-4. 4. MAKING PROPOSALS FOR IMPROVEMENT This follows critique. If we know what is wrong, then we can make suggestions for how to correct that - without sacrificing that which is already OK. We can make aspectual suggestions based either on balance or on aspectual normativity. If we detect imbalance, i.e. an ignored aspect, then the obvious thing is to draw attention to that aspect, and make proposals for giving it due consideration. There are at least three kinds of suggestion we can make (with an example relating to the ethical aspect): - We can suggest the aspect as such, e.g. "Are we overlooking the ethical aspect here?" - We can suggest a property or functioning in the aspect, e.g. "Will this lead to greater selfishness among users, or greater generosity?" - We can suggest things, e.g. "Would it be useful to create guidelines that applaud generosity, and structures which reward it?" which is appropriate depends on the situation. 5. EXAMPLE: GUIDELINES FOR UI (Extract from 'Philosophical Frameworks for Understanding Information Systems', Basden [2007], IGI Global.) All aspects have normativity (even the deterministic ones). This normativity offers a basis for establishing sound practical guidelines for developing or evaluating UIs or whole computer systems. The shalom principle of simultaneous realization of norms emphasises the importance of attending to each aspect. While it is appropriate on occasion to focus attention on one aspect (usually the qualifying) we should always do so in a way that gives all the other aspects their due. If we over-emphasise an aspect, and in the extreme absolutize it, we begin to ignore other aspects, and the result is that the success or fruitfulness of our activity is jeopardised. Thus, for example, a web page that has superb graphics but is otherwise devoid of useful content it will fall into disuse. Web pages are user interfaces, and we can see the normativity of many of the aspects recognised in the more mature published web design guidelines. Table 6 shows the 'Research-Based Web Design and Usability Guidelines' of the National Cancer Institute [2005] and the main aspects of each guideline (aspects indicated by the first letter of their name, from Q = Quantitative to P = Pistic). Many have two aspects, sometimes because they cover two things (e.g. "set goals" (formative) and "state goals" (lingual)) and sometimes because the main idea is of two aspects (e.g. sharing is both lingual and ethical). We do not differentiate between qualifying and founding aspects here, but could do if a more precise analysis were needed. Table 6. Aspects of Web Design Guidelines We can use aspectual analysis as a basis for critique. The first thing that strikes us is how many aspects are represented here. This is, of course, what one would expect from a good, mature set of guidelines such as the NCI guidelines are. Second, we might look for imbalance among the aspects. The spatial and formative aspects appear more often than most other aspects; we can ask ourselves whether this is appropriate. Perhaps more significant are some gaps, at least in this 2005 version, some of which are quite surprising:  The pistic aspect of vision of who we are is completely absent, yet one might expect some mention of the designers' vision for the website. (It is possible that "Set goals" implies some pistic vision for the site.)  The ethical aspect of self-giving is present only in sharing design ideas. Guidelines on how to give the reader more than is actually due to them, and thus create a site that feels generous, would be useful.  The juridical aspect is almost absent, only represented tangentially in the concept of providing 'useful' content. The juridical aspect would be relevant in terms of giving both the topic and the readers their due.  Perhaps most surprising is the almost complete absence of the social aspect -- the two inclusions are rather tangential. Since websites are read by people from any and every cultural group, with varying background knowledge, expectations and world views, we might expect a whole set of guidelines on appropriate use of cultural connotations, humour, idiom, and on respecting cultural sensitivities.  The kinematic aspect is almost entirely absent. Animation can be used to show movement, but have the designers of these guidelines overlooked this, treating animation as a mere sensitive or aesthetic decoration? This aspectual analysis of these guidelines is not meant primarily as a criticism of the guidelines, which are excellent when compared with many others that are available, but rather to show how aspectual analysis can be useful as an evaluation tool, and how it might be used to suggest future improvements. All diagrams and tables copyright (c) Andrew Basden, 2007. IV. SOME LITERATURE: BOOKS AND PAPERS The key reference work underpinning this module is Basden, A. (2008) Philosophical Frameworks for Understanding Information Systems, Herschey, PA, USA: IGI Global. This book provides a broad understanding of information systems as a whole - their use, development, nature and impact on society. Chapter 6 is especially important in this module. The remaining literature is typical of material which the student should read and study, and is supplied merely as suggestions. The student should be selective in what they read, and should supplement this with other material of their own choosing. Literature on Overall ISD Project Basden A, Watson I D, Brandon P S, (1995), Client Centred: an approach to developing knowledge based systems, Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils, U.K. Floyd C, (1986), "A comparative evaluation of system development methods", pp.19-54 in Olle T W, Sol H G, Verrijn-Stuart A A (eds), Information System Design Methodologies: Improving the Practice, Elsevier, North-Holland. :: need for Theory of Application. Johnson P, Johnson H, Wilson S, (1995), "Rapid prototyping of user interfaces driven by task models", pp.209-245 in Carroll J M (ed.) Scenario-Based Design; Envisioning Work and Technology in System Development, Wiley. :: good quote re IS being people+IT Kumar K, Bjørn-Andersen N (1990) A cross-cultural comparison of IS designer values. Comm ACM, 38(5):528- 38. ::p Noyes J M, Starr A F, (1995), "Working with users in system development: some methodological considerations", in Integrating HCI in the Life Cycle: Colloq. BCS HCI Group, 11 April 1995. Literature on Anticipating Use Basden A, Watson I D, Brandon P S, (1995), Client Centred: an approach to developing knowledge based systems, Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils, U.K. BSI (1992) "A framework for user requirements for Information Technology", British Standards Institution, IST/21:3590. Basden A, Wood-Harper AT (2006) "A philosophical discussion of the Root Definition in Soft Systems Thinking: An enrichment of CATWOE" Sys. Res. and Behavioral Sci., 23:61-87. Checkland P, (1981), Systems Thinking, Systems Practice, Wiley, New York. Mingers J. 1984. Subjectivism and Soft Systems Methodology - A Critique. Journal of Applied Systems Analysis 11:85-103. Probert, S.K. (1997) The metaphysical assumptions of the (main) soft systems methodology advocates in Winder, R.L., Probert, S.K., Beeson, I.A. Philosophical Aspects of Information Systems, Taylor and Francis. Schregenberger J. 1982. The Development of Lancaster Soft Systems Methodology: A Review and some Personal Remarks from a Sympathetic Critic. J. Applied Systems Analysis 9:87-98. Winograd T, (1995), "From programming environments to environments for designing", Comm. ACM., v.38, n.6, pp.65-74. Literature on Creating the IS / Programming Knuth DE (1984). Literate Programming. The Computer Jnl 27(2):97-111. Pieterse V, Kourie DG, Boake A (2004). A case for contemporary Literate Programming. Proc. SAICSIT, South African Institute for Computer Science and Information Technology, p.2-9. :: good review of different approaches to programming as human activity. Mantei M, (1981), "The effect of programming team structures on programming tasks", Comm. ACM., v.24, n.3, pp.106-113. Marques D, Dallemagne G, Klinker G, McDermott J, Tung D, (1992), "Easy programming", IEEE Expert, June '92, pp.16-29. Weinberg Gerald M. (1999). "Egoless Programming," IEEE Software 16(1):118-120. Literature on Knowledge Elicitation and IS Content Basden A, Watson I D, Brandon P S, (1995), Client Centred: an approach to developing knowledge based systems, Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils, U.K. - some chapters Cooke N J, (1994), "Varieties of knowledge elicitation techniques", Int. J. Human-Computer Studies, v.41, pp.801-849. :: KgAcq, B+A, Dieng R, Corby O, Lapalut S, (1995) "Acquisition and exploitation of gradual knowledge" International Journal of Human- Computer Studies 42(5):465-499. Gaines B R, (1987), "An overview of knowledge acquisition and transfer", Int. J. Man-Machine Studies, v.26, No.4, pp.453-472. Hart A, (1986), "Knowledge acquisition for expert systems", Kogan Page, London. Kidd A L, (1987), "Knowledge Acquisition for Expert Systems: A Practical Handbook", Plenum Press, New York. Klinker G, Genetet S, McDermott J, (1988), "Knowledge acquisition for evaluation systems", IJMMS, v.29, No.6, p.715. Lefkowitz L S, Lesser V R, (1988), "Knowledge acquisition as knowledge assimilation", IJMMS, v.29, No.2, p.215. Lightfoot J M (1999) "Expert knowledge acquisition and the unwilling expert: a knowledge engineering perspective" Expert Systems 16(3):141-7. :: mv, rtf, social relshp Ngwenyama O K, Klein H K, (1994), "An exploration of expertise of knowledge workers: towards a definition of the universe of discourse for knowledge acquisition", Info. Systems J., v.4, pp.129-140. ::: ABM, U+E, tacit, knowledge acquisition. Good. Schweickert R, Burton A M, Taylor N K, Corlett E N, Shadbolt N R, Hedgecock A P, (1987), "Comparing knowledge elicitation techniques: a case study", Artificial Intelligence Review, v.1, pp.245-53. Shadbolt N, Burton M, (1989), "Knowledge elicitation", in Wilson J, Corlett N, (eds.), Evaluation of Human Work: Practical Ergonomics Methodology, Taylor Francis. Shaw M L G, Gaines B R, (1987), "Techniques for knowledge acquisition and transfer", Int. J. Man-Machine Studies, v.26, No.3, pp.251-280. Winfield M J, Basden A, Cresswell I, (1996), "Knowledge elicitation using a multi-modal approach", World Futures, V.47, pp.93 - 101. Witten I H, MacDonald B A, (1988), "Using concept learning for knowledge acquisition", IJMMS, v.29, No.2, p. 171. Andrew Basden. 28 May 2008, 1 October 2008 GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS This glossary is based on Basden [2008], with some extra entries. Key found at end of each entry: {D} In Dooyeweerdian thought {E} In everyday use {IS} In information systems and related disciplines {P} In philosophy {number} Optional chapter number, or part of chapter. Amiga: An innovative multi-tasking, multi-media computer platform of the 1990s, which was particularly suited to home and games use; the platform used by this author. {IS} ANT: Actor Network Theory {IS} Anticipation: An aspect refers forward to a later one. {D3} Antinomy: A deep inconsistency or incoherency that cannot be overcome by logic. {D2} Archimedean point: a hypothetical vantage point from which an observer can objectively perceive the subject of inquiry, with a view of totality. (From Wikipedia article of the same name). {D} Aspect: 1. {D} Synonymous with 'sphere of meaning-and-law'; this is a central concept in Dooyeweerd's thought {§3.1} 2. {E} A general kind of property that is to be distinguished from others. Aspectual law: Cosmic law (q.v.) that enables and guides the functioning of the whole cosmos. {D3} Assumption: A belief that makes a proposition true or false (as opposed to meaningful; see Presupposition). {P} CATWOE: A simple checklist to help with problem solving as part of Soft Systems Methodology; see §6.8. {IS6} CCA: Client Centred Approach to ISD. {IS6} CFR: Creation, Fall and Redemption ground-motive {D2} Conflate: merge together; combine two into one in a way that is probably inappropriate. {E} Cosmic law: The transcending law-framework that enables the cosmos to be and occur, but which can never be fully known. {D2} Cosmic meaning: The transcending framework of spheres of meaning which stamps the entire cosmos as Meaning. {D2} Cosmic time: Dooyeweerd's notion of Time. {D} Cosmonomic philosophy: A name for Dooyeweerd's positive philosophy. {D2} CR: Critical Realism. {P} CST: Critical Systems Thinking. {IS6} Dialectic: The opposing of one central idea to another in a way that is deeper than logic and involves deep commitments; thought tends to swing from one pole to the other. {P,D2} DST: Disclosive Systems Thinking {IS6} EISD: Emancipatory information systems design/development. {IS6} Enkapsis: A relationship in which two 'wholes' are joined in a structural relationship in which both are necessary. {§3.2.6.2} Entity side: See Subject side {D} ERC: Engagement with represented content {IS4} Everyday attitude: An attitude of thinking or reflecting that is open to the richness of everyday experience. (= 'lifeworld attitude', 'naïve attitude'). Contrasted with theoretical attitude. {P} Everyday experience: Human experience of life in all its richness. Contrasted with theoretical observation and analysis of a narrow focus. {P} Extant: Existing, used of current thinking or ideas or discourse; still relevant and applicable. {E} FFU: Framework for understanding. FMGM: Form-Matter ground-motive {D2} Foundational dependency: Each aspect (q.v.) depends on earlier ones for its positivisation (q.v.); example: social functioning cannot occur without lingual functioning. {D3} FPB: Fixed point binary number {IS7} Functioning (in an aspect): Response to aspectual law (q.v.). Example: in reading this you are functioning in the lingual aspect of understanding symbols, and also the psychic aspect of vision. Can be either object- or subject-functioning (q.v.). {D3} Gegenstand: 1. {P} In immanence-philosophy, that which is valid and objective in our experience. 2. {D3} Relationship in which we 'stand over against' an object of our thought or action, rather than engage intimately with it; in contrast to (1), this reduces validity. GIS: Geographic information systems {IS} Ground-motive: Deep presupposition about the nature of reality; it is a "moving power or spirit at the very roots of man, who so captured works it out with fear and trembling, and curiosity". {D2} HCI: Human-computer interaction {IS4} HLC: Human living with computers {IS4} HST: Hard systems thinking {IS6} HUC: Human use of computers, an area of research and practice. {IS4} ICT: Information and communication technology. Immanence-standpoint: A deep presupposition that the fundamental Principle of all temporal reality that is may be found within temporal reality itself. It usually leads to reductionism. Example; materialism. Clouser [2005] explains it well. {D2} Immanence-philosophy: Philosophy based on the immanence-standpoint (q.v.) {D2} Immanent critique: Criticism of a position or stream of thought in terms of what it itself finds meaningful and important and seeks to achieve, usually to expose presuppositions it makes to show they are contradictory. Used especially by Habermas and Dooyeweerd. {P} Internal structural principle: The internal structural principle is a cosmic law which governs how a thing of a given type responds to the various aspects; also called 'type law'. {D3} IS: Information systems. ISD: Information systems development: an area of research and practice. {IS6} IT: Information technology. ITE: Information technology as ecology: an area of research and practice. {IS8} ITR: Information technology resources: an area of research and practice. {IS7} KIISD: Key Issues in Information Systems Development (the name of this module) {IS} KBS: Knowledge based systems (IS) KM: Knowledge management. {IS} Knowledge elicitation: Coming to distinguish and know what is relevant in a domain of application for encapsulation in or as a computer system. {IS6} Knowledge representation: Representing or expressing what is relevant in a domain in a computer language. {IS6,7} KR: knowledge representation. KR formalism: A general kind of KR language; it embodies a theory or idea of how knowledge can be represented. {IS7} KR language: a formal language that is used to program computers; it can be graphical as well as textual (for example box-and-arrows diagrammers). {IS7,6} Law: 1. {D} Aspectual law 2. {E} Legal requirement. Law side: The law side comprises the framework within which all can exist or happen. {D2} Law-promise: = Law, emphasising repercussions. {D} Lifeworld (= Life-world): The 'world' of everyday life as distinct from the scientific 'worlds' of e.g. physics, psychology, social science. Synonym for 'everyday', 'naïve' and 'pre-theoretical'. {P1,3} LOFFU: Lifeworld-oriented framework for understanding. {1} LWV: Life-and-world-view. Meaning: To Dooyeweerd, this is almost a synonym for reality: all created reality *is* meaning; Meaning has the character of referring beyond. Four uses of 'meaning'. {D2} Meaning-and-law: The law side: the cosmic framework that enables the Cosmos to be and occur. {D2} Meaningful-functioning: Functioning in an aspect as either subject or object. {D} MMORPG: Massively-multiplayer online role-playing games: computer game played over the Internet. {IS} MST: Multimodal Systems Thinking {IS6} MUDs: Multi-User Dungeon computer game played over Internet. {IS} Naive: Simple (with negative connotation); contrast with 'naïve). Naïve: An adjective used for experience or attitude; A synonym for everyday, pre-theoretical, lifeworld; It does not have a negative connotation (contrast 'naive'). {P} NCI: National Cancer Institute. NFGM: Nature-Freedom ground-motive. {D2} NGGM: Nature-Grace ground-motive. {D2} NoC: Nature of computers: an area of research and practice. {IS5} Normativity: The branch of philosophy concerned with good and evil; also the right versus wrong of a situation or thing. {P} Noumenon: Something whose existence can be reasoned but not perceived. {P} Object: (multiple meanings) 1.: Thing 2. {D} Something affected or created by something else's subject-functioning 3. {IS6,7} Representation of domain meaning. Object-oriented: An approach to programming {IS7} Object-functioning: When something functions in an aspect as part of something else's subject-functioning. {D2,3} Ontic: Of, relating to, or having real being or existence. {P} Ontology: 1. {P} A branch of philosophy concerned with studying ontic issues 2. {IS7} (usually 'KR ontology') a statement in a KR language about such ontic issues in a domain of meaning. OO: Object-oriented. Outwith: A Scottish word meaning the opposite of 'within', similar in meaning to 'outside' but without the spatial connotations; usually used of a conceptual field; e.g. "This problem is outwith my remit". Phenomenon: anything perceived by the senses or how we are conscious of something as distinct from the nature of the thing itself. {P} Pistic: (Greek, 'pistis': faith) Usual name of fifteenth aspect in Dooyeweerd's suite. {D3} Positivisation: Law is positivised when some subject responds to it in time; the Cosmos is positivisation of cosmic law. {D} Presupposition: An assumption that makes a statement or belief meaningful, rather than true; contrast Assumption (q.v.). {P} Qualifying aspect: The aspect which expresses the main meaning of a thing as that type of thing; Example: the qualifying aspect of a pen is the lingual. {D3} RDM: Relational Data Model {IS7} Reduction(ism): The attitude or action of trying to explain one type of meaning fully in terms of another, usually with connotations that this is undue. {P} Religion: "the innate impulse of human selfhood to direct itself toward the true or toward a pretended absolute Origin of all temporal diversity of meaning, which it finds focused concentrically in itself." [Dooyeweerd, 1984,I,p.57]. NOT to be confused with particular creeds or religious practices. {D2} Religious root: See §2.4.1. {D2} Repercussion: Result of aspectual functioning. {D3} Represented content: Meaning of a domain that is represented in a computer {IS4} Retrocipation: Referring back to earlier aspects {D3} S-O: Subject-object relationship S-S: Subject-subject relationship SDM: System development method {IS6} Shalom principle: If we function well in every aspect then things will go well, but if we function poorly in any aspect, then our success will be jeopardised. See §3.4.3. {D3} SMP: Semi-manufactured product. {D} Sphere of law, or meaning: Aspect (q.v.) {D} SSM: Soft Systems Methodology {IS6} SST: Soft systems thinking {IS6}, and Social Shaping of Technology {IS8} ST: Structuration Theory (Giddens) Subject: 1. {D} Agent that responds to and is subject to aspectual law 2. {E} Topic. Subject side: That which is subject to the law side (q.v.); synonym for the cosmos as it actually exists and occurs, including the conceptual and social worlds. The subject side, also called entity side or fact side, comprises all that exists or occurs in the cosmos, as concrete reality, including concrete meanings that are ascriptions we make, and includes all our experience, past, present, future and potential. {D2} Subject-functioning: When a thing (or person) actively responds to aspectual law, as agent rather than as object. {D} Subject-object relationship: See chapter 2 'Escaping Descartes and Kant'. Dooyeweerd proposed a notion of subject and object which is radically different from that inherited from Descartes. {P,D} Transcendent critique (Not to be confused with transcendental critique, q.v.): Criticising a position from the perspective and value-system of a completely different position (e.g. criticising Marxism from Capitalist perspective or vice versa.) Opposite of Immanent critique (q.v.). {P} Transcendental critique (Not to be confused with transcendent critique, q.v.): Critical analysis of a position immanently to expose the conditions that are necessary for it to be possible. {P} Two-thirds world: A better name for developing world or 'third world'. {IS8} Type law: see 'Internal structural principle' (q.v.) {D3} UI: User interface {IS} VR: Virtual reality {IS} VSM: Viable Systems Model (Beer) {IS} Weltanschauung: World-view {P} World-view: (= World view) Set of assumptions, aspirations, etc. that shape the way we see, understand and react to things. {P} 19 January 2009, 3 February 2009