HOW TO REFERENCE Referencing means that you make very clear the source of every piece of content that you obtain from a source other than yourself (this includes the lecture notes and the Client Centred book). There are at least two reasons for referencing: » The source of ideas that you use deserves to get the credit for those ideas. To take credit for good ideas that someone else has given you is unjust. To do so for purposes of getting extra marks that you do not deserve is cheating, and is called plagiarism. » The reader might find what you write interesting, and wish to explore some of the ideas further. The reference you give tells the reader where to search the ideas. With these reasons in mind, there are two parts to referencing: » The Citations in your text, which indicating where each idea in your text that is from somewhere else comes from; this is usually done by giving the name of the author(s) of the ideas plus the date they were written and possibly the page number, within your text. It tells the reader the source of the idea. Examples: » "A Kleinian approach concerns itself not just with the structure of data or communications, but with its meaning and underlying world-view [Truex, Baskerville & Klein, 1999]." - reference tacked on to idea in brackets » "The reason Truex, Baskerville & Klein [1999] stress self- reference seems to be a concern to overcome conservatism and unwarranted caution in face of external pressures." - authors of reference used as part of text of sentence » The Reference List, which is an organised list containing references for of all your citations. Each reference comprises all the details needed to let the reader locate the idea you have cited. The reference contains: names of authors, date, title of article, and details of where the article may be found. See below. Example: » TRUEX DP, BASKERVILLE R & KLEIN HK (1999) Growing Systems in Emergent Organizations. Communications of the ACM, 42, 117-123. Referencing is essential to a dissertation, and to an assignment for a Masters module, because it shows that you have done good work in finding out other people's ideas that are relevant to yours. Now in more detail ... Types of Literature Appropriate To Each Part There are at least the following types of literature which are appropriate to different parts of dissertation. Books: - Academic monograph books, such as 'The Tacit Dimension' by M. Polanyi; these are books whose purpose is to introduce and discuss new ideas. Usually good for LR. - Textbooks: these are academic, but are intended to teach existing ideas rather than introduce and discuss new ideas. Most course texts are of this kind. - Reference books (encyclopaedias, dictionaries, etc.) - Factual stories or narrative books: For example, a book that tells what happened in the London Ambulance System IS disaster. These are good as literature source. - Company reports. - Government documents. Articles: - Academic journal papers, such as Int. J. Human-Computer Studies (in library); these are articles intended to introduce and discuss new ideas. Usually good for LR. - Professional journals; these provide serious, reflective material which is news, comment and opinion. Usually good for Introduction. - Magazines: these contain lighter articles. Usually good only as Literature Sources for primary research. - Newspapers: Internet Sources: - Web pages, sites: these can be used in Introduction and as Literature Sources, but should hardly ever be used in LR. - Emails: these can be used as sources for primary research. Other Media: - Radio, TV, Video clips (transcripts of). Citing in Text There are various ways to cite in text, and you can use any you wish as long as you are consistent. But I suggest cite by Author(s) plus Date. Here is an example: "There is a bewildering diversity of philosophies from which to choose and different ones are appealed to from within different I.S. disciplines. For example, in artificial intelligence, appeals have been made to the rationalist Leibniz (Brachman and Levesque, 1985) and the neo-positivist Brentano (Newell, 1982), in human factors appeals have been made to the existentialist Heidegger (Winograd and Flores, 1986), and recently the information systems community has appealed to the critical theorist Habermas (Lyytinen and Klein, 1985). Klein and Myers (1999) have examined I.S. research by reference to hermeneutic philosophy and phenomenology. While such diversity can be fruitful, our problem is that ISD, as the bridge between technology and its use, must concern itself with four major areas - usage and impact, process of development, the shape that technologies assume, and perspectives held on information systems in general (Basden, 2001). If the philosophies appealed to do not cohere, then ISD is hindered, for example, when positivistically inspired technologies are found inappropriate in the human context of use. Burrell and Morgan (1979) have argued for incommensurability between paradigms in research - the very research that generates the technologies, methodologies, theories and models that we use in I.S. While others (e.g. Lee, 1991; Willmott, 1993) have argued that this may be overcome in the practical research arena, incommensurability remains a problem (Falconer and Mackay, 1999)." Notice: - Always use surnames. - Sometimes names are part of the sentence, as in "Klein and Myers (1999) have examined I.S. research ..." Here I am using the authors as people. The reference is made by the date in brackets immediately after the name. - Sometimes names are not part of the sentence, as in "... has appealed to the critical theorist Habermas (Lyytinen and Klein, 1985)" The authors are not being used as people, so the reference in brackets must have author(s), then comma, then date. - Single author e.g. "(Basden, 2001)" - Multiple authors for one paper: link by commas with 'and' before final one, e.g. "(Lyytinen and Klein, 1985)" - Multiple references in single brackets: separate the references by semicolon, e.g. "(Lee, 1991; Willmott, 1993)" In e.g. company reports, government documents and web pages it might not be known who the author is. In that case, use the name of the organisation as author. e.g. "(DEFRA, 2006)" Reference Lists Reference lists occur at the end of the document. They list every reference you have made in the document, and no more. So every reference in the list should be cited at least once in the document, and every citation in the document must be included as a reference in this list. Books: Give the following in order: Author(s), Date, Title of book, Country and city of publisher, Publisher. e.g. Landauer, T. K. (1996). The trouble with computers: Usefulness, usability and productivity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books. Winograd, T., & Flores, F. (1986). Understanding computers and cognition: A new foundation for design. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Dumas, J. S., & Redish, J. C. (1999). A practical guide to usability testing (2nd ed). Exeter, England: Intellect. Theses: As book, but publisher is a University. e.g. Kane, S. C. (2006). Multi-aspectual interview technique. PhD Thesis, University of Salford, U.K. Papers in journals, Magazine articles, etc.: Give the following, in order: Author(s), Date, Title of Paper, Name of Journal, Volume number, Part number (usually in brackets, if available), Page Numbers. e.g. Winograd, T. (2006). Designing a new foundation for design. Communications of the ACM, 49(5), 71-73. Basden, A., Brown, A. J., Tetlow, S. D. A., & Hibberd, P. R. (1996). Design of a user interface for a knowledge refinement tool. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 45, 157- 183. Chapters in Edited Books (which contain collections of chapters by different authors): Give the following in order: Author(s) of Chapter, Date of book, Title of Chapter, Page numbers, "in", Editor(s) of Book, "(ed.)", Country and city of publisher, Publisher. e.g. Mitev, N. N. (2001). The social construction of IS failure: symmetry, the sociology of translation and politics. pp.17-34 in A. Adam, D. Howcroft, H. Richardson, & B. Robinson (Eds.), Re-)defining critical research in information systems. Salford, England: University of Salford. Papers in Conference Proceedings: As Chapter in book, but with name of ocnference: e.g. Castell, A. C., Basden, A., Erdos, G., Barrows, P., & Brandon, P. S. (1992). Knowledge based systems in use: A case study. In British Computer Society Specialist Group for Knowledge Based Systems, Proceedings from Expert Systems 92 (Applications Stream). Swindon, England: British Computer Society. Jones, G. O., & Basden, A. (2004). Using Dooyeweerd's philosophy to guide the process of stakeholder engagement in ISD. pp. 1-19 in M. J. de Vries, B. Bergvall-KÃ¥reborn, & S. Strijbos (Eds.), Interdisciplinarity and the integration of knowledge: Proceedings of the 10th annual working conference of CPTS, 19-24 April 2004 . Amersfoort, Netherlands: Centre for Philosophy, Technology and Social Systems. Web pages: Give the following, in order: Author(s) of web page, Date written, Title of web page, Full URL, Date Accessed. National Cancer Institute. (2005). Evidence-based guidelines on web design and usability issues. Retrieved October 19, 2005, from http://usability.gov/guidelines/