CHAPTER V. HLC - HUMAN LIVING WITH COMPUTERS 1. INTRODUCTION In HCI we were interested in the direct interaction between the user and the computer, all in service of symbols by which meaningful content is represented to the user. In ERM we were interested in that meaning-content itself, and especially how to ensure good quality. In HLC we are interested in the place the interactions and the represented meaning have in the everyday life of the user - the 'everyday life' of work or home or anywhere else. For example, as you play a computer game, what is the effect on your 'real' life, rather than your life in the game? You have fun. You relax. You might forget your worries for a time - but then if you merely escape them they come back full force later and worse. Playing the game consumes time and, as the example in chapter II shows, you might miss the train and then lose the job! There are many and varied repercussions of playing the game. The question we face in HLC is how to 'see' all the many and We will refer to the computer more as an information system (IS) rather than computer. An IS includes both the computer, the user and various other people that might be affected, or might affect, the user's use of the computer. In this chapter we consider especially what impact use of the IS can have on the life and work of the user and otehrs. We will consider each aspect in detail. In Human Experiences we gave a summary of the diversity of HLC when using the Elsie system, with the following aspects: » Quantitative - Increases the number of times he sees the client. » Spatial - Should the client seek either a bigger site, or consider a smaller development? » Psychic - Users feel happy about Elsie. » Analytic - Using Elsie helped clarify client requirements. » Formative - Using Elsie helped develop a specification for the building. » Lingual - Using Elsie helped communication with client and recording of the process of discussion. » Social - Using Elsie helped enhance surveyor-client relationships. » Economic - Using Elsie helped work out how to reduce costs. » Aesthetic - Using Elsie was enjoyable, and helped harmony between surveyor and client. » Juridical - Using Elsie helped do justice to the client's real needs, as distinct from what they thought they wanted. » Ethical - Surveyors were happy to sacrifice 'power' they used to wield over client, as experts; see Appendix 1. » Faith - Surveyors saw themselves less as experts to whom clients came for advice and more as partners with client working towards shared goal. It does not much matter what the application is, it can impact human life in many ways in each aspect. 2. WHAT IS HLC? In the HCI chapter, we quoted Norman [1990] saying: "The real problem with the interface is that it is an interface. Interfaces get in the way. I don't want to focus my energies on an interface. I want to focus on the job." At that time, we were concerned with ensuring that the UI was proximal enough, and the HCI natural enough, so that it did not interrupt the user's thinking as they focused on 'the job'. But what is 'the job'? In many cases, what Norman was referring to is HLC. For example, the nurses who use the patient database want to focus on treating the patient properly. This focusing on a job, doing a job, or doing any task in life, is what HLC is all about. In HLC the computer system itself becomes almost invisible, being completely subsumed into the human user's aspectual functioning. The important thing is whether that functioning is good in each aspect of everyday life and work, and whether the IS makes it better or worse. In HLC we are primarily concerned with how human beings function in the aspects that are their everyday living. Functioning in each aspect is a response to the laws of those aspects and it thereby incurs repercussions, as depicted in Fig. 1. Figure 1. Aspectual functioning and repercussions Because the later aspects are non-determinative, the repercussions therein cannot be predicted with certainty. But much analysis and useful prediction is still possible, including of troublesome issues like diverse, indirect and unexpected impacts. 2.1 Diversity of repercussions Each aspect gives rise to a distinct type of repercussion, so we can expect many types of repercussion in any single instance of HLC. None may be reduced to nor explained in terms of others. In Appendix 1 of Types of Experience, Mitev's [2001] account cited earlier, of the Socrate rail ticketing system, the following aspectual repercussions can be identified (not including statements that express functioning that led to them): "led to an inadequate and to some extent chaotic implementation." - juridical + aesthetic "Staff training was inadequate and did not prepare salespeople to face tariff inconsistencies and ticketing problems." - formative "The new ticket proved unacceptable to customers." - formative (historical) "Public relations failed to prepare the public to such a dramatic change." - formative "caused major problems for the SNCF sales force and customers alike." - formative "led to large queues of irate customers in all major stations." - social + sensitive "Booked tickets were for non-existent trains" - economic "other trains ran empty" - economic "railway unions went on strike" - economic "passengers' associations sued SNCF." - juridical All such repercussions (all negative as it happens) contributed to, and constituted, the failure of that IS. Aspectual analysis of the functioning and repercussions in each aspect is useful either prospectively in prediction and design or retrospectively in evaluation. This can ensure that the moral and political issues (ethical, juridical aspects) are not overlooked, a criticism that Walsham [2001,p.49] reports was made of Social Construction of Technology. It can also ensure that impacts on the environment are not overlooked, but usually these are indirect impacts. 2.2 Indirect, long-term impacts The most direct repercussions of HLC can be expected in the aspects in which the functioning occurs. In lingual functioning we would expect lingual repercussions; for example, if the text of a question the computer puts to the user is poorly worded, then we can expect the user to misunderstand the question. But the effects of this misunderstanding could then be passed on to others, affecting them. See Fig. 2. Ulrich [1994] calls such people 'affecteds' and Eason [1988] and Friedman and Cornford [1989] called these 'secondary users'; the human factors community calls them 'stakeholders'. Ferneley and Light [2006] suggest the notion has still not received adequate attention in the IS literature. Figure 2. Repercussions of IS Use Whereas these authors merely draw attention to the problem, this aspectual view can provide a basis for further analysis and research. The indirect impact is inevitably diverse because the human being responds in all aspects, even when stimulated by one. These repercussions can then impact others. This makes the social aspect very important in HLC. Except in very restricted situations, human living with computers cannot be understood properly without taking the social aspect into account. Many aspectual repercussions in post-social aspects occur because the aspectual functioning spreads throughout society and may thus take some time to materialise fully. The later the aspect, the longer-term are its repercussions; for example the pistic can give rise to particularly long-term repercussions, often over decades. For example climate change or the 2008 credit crunch, arising from the Western worldview (see chapter 2). Jones and Basden [2004] show how aspectual analysis can be useful in identifying a wide range of stakeholders, including those often overlooked, such as non-human ones. 2.3 Unexpected impacts As illustrated in the cases discussed by Eriksson [2006] and the cases of SNCF and Elsie (see Appendix 1), and also Walsham [2001] many important impacts are unexpected. The reason for unexpected repercussion, Eriksson argues, is because a number of important human aspects had been overlooked (e.g. the social relationship by which informal advice about the quality of vegetables was offered). Though Walsham does not speak of aspects in the same way, it is clear the same reason applies in his case of the insurance system: the entire pistic aspect of Utmost Good Faith was overlooked. The pistic aspect was also overlooked in the case of Elsie (changed view of one's role), but here it brought unexpected success. The most serious unexpected impacts occur not because of lack of detailed knowledge but because aspects are overlooked during design, development or use. Philosophically, the reason why unexpected repercussions occur is because the laws of aspects still pertain, transcending us, even when overlooked. If, as subjectivism holds, there are no transcending laws, it is difficult to account adequately for unexpected impacts. This suggests that identifying which aspects have been overlooked during design or use can help us identify the broad areas in which the most serious unintended impacts are likely to occur, and that, if we then take account of (our best knowledge of) the laws of these aspects, we can often gain an indication of what the unintended impacts are likely to be, and over what timescale. This is important in IS development. The author has found in practice that this is an intuitive, rather than rational, process, probably because the kernel meanings of aspects are grasped by intuition rather than by reason, but it is possible some structured method could be devised for it. 2.4 Stakeholders So, it is not only the direct user who is impacted by such repercussions of IS use, but many others too. The HCI community calls all of them 'stakeholders'. Some will be active, in that they have some say over the use of the IS, while others are passive in that they have no say. Some stakeholders will be inside the organisation to which the user belongs, while others will be outside. Most will be human, but some can be non-human, such as animals, the planet or society. Here is a list of stakeholders of the SNCF rail ticketing system, listed in order of their mention in the citation in Appendix 1: » management [active, internal] » unions [active, external] » users [active, internal] » Staff [passive or active, internal] » salespeople [passive, internal] » customers [passive, external] » the public [passive, external] » SNCF sales force [passive, internal] » customers [passive, external] » large queues of irate customers [passive, external] » railway unions [active, external] » passengers' associations [active, external] » SNCF [the organisation itself]. Here are some of the stakeholders of the use of Elsie: » the quantity surveyor who is the main user, » the client, whose building the QS is working on, and whose requirements become clarified » the QS's colleagues, » other clients, when the client spreads the word of the good service obtained » the QS firm, which gains clients » the architect who designs the building, in that they might find a client with clearer requirements, but they might also resent the leading role now taken by the QS in the project » the people who will use the offices, in that their experience of the offices might be better » the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, which would like QSs to play a greater lead role in construction projects » the ethos of the UK construction industry, in that new-build is given yet another advantage over refurbishment. Such varied stakeholders should all be considered when analysing HLC. How do we ensure this? One way is to use the aspects as a checklist, because the relationship each stakeholder has with the use of the IS is governed by one or more of the aspects. Here is a list of possible stakeholder of any IS use: » Quantitative - Accountants, statisticians » Spatial - Geographers, architects » Kinematic - Transport people » Physical - Energy suppliers, the planet » Biotic (Organic) - Health professionals, people's whose health might be affected (including direct user), animals, the biosphere and life itself » Psychic - Direct users, colleagues, family of direct user, psychiatrists and counsellors » Analytic - Direct users (clarifying their thinking, and all affected by that), customers or clients whose requirements are clarified » Formative - Direct users (who can make better or worse plans), trainees (learning new skills), planners, any project in which the IS is used » Lingual - Direct users (able to communicate better), colleagues, the knowledge management of the organisation (because information is stored), managers who gain better (or worse) information, customers who gain better (or worse) information, archives (storing of information) » Social - Direct user, and all to whom they relate: colleagues, managers, customers, suppliers, family, friends; society » Economic - The work-group, the management, suppliers, customers, resource handling in the organisation, the economy » Aesthetic - Direct user (enjoyment, fun, interest), the direct work-group or division of the user (better or worse harmony) » Juridical - Customers and suppliers (to whom organisation has responsibility), all external people, animals, planet and biosphere (ecological responsibility) » Ethical - Colleagues and family of direct user affected by the attitude the direct user takes in life; attitude as it spreads through the community » Faith - Direct user (vision of themselves, their identity), their organisation. {*** Use that as a checklist in your team projects, to check whether stakeholder is being ignored or omitted. ***} 3. TOWARDS SUCCESS RATHER THAN FAILURE? How do we judge the 'success' or 'failure' of IS? Certainly no longer solely in technical terms. Landauer [1996] did a lot to widen our view to HLC. But he focuses on productivity as the norm of HLC, as that which may be expected to be fulfilled and yet, paradoxically, is not. But such a treatment is too narrow for all IS in that it elevates a single aspect (in this case, the economic). 3.1 Extant Norms for IS Success On what grounds should we judge the success of failure of an information system? » "It's nice to use" - but is it useful? » "It's easy to maintain" - but does it bring any benefits? » "It meets its objectives" - but perhaps in doing so, it generates some harmful side-effects. » "It increases our profits" - ditto, and sets the scene for later problems because it requires users to work longer hours, robbing them of time with their families, leading to family breakdown. » "It improves business effectiveness" - but it makes undue impositions on the users, leading to injustice » "It improves workers' conditions" - but does it do this at the expense of the environment? It is clear that it is not easy to judge success and failure. We will use Dooyeweerd's aspects to help us separate out the various issues in success and failure. 3.2 Understanding Success Via the Aspects Dooyeweerd believed that the aspects contain their own norms. That is, each defines a different way of being Good or Evil, Beneficial or Detrimental. See chapter 1, 'What Aspects Are and Do' for a list of good and bad in each aspect from the biotic. With this understanding, we can see that objectives, satisfaction and emancipation may be seen as just three of the aspects: formative, psychic and juridical. Using aspects we can provide not only a richer picture, but one that does not need to fix on one measure. Dooyeweerd held that if we function well in every aspect, then not only we but society and the world in general will benefit. This has been called the shalom principle after the Hebrew word 'shalom' (and perhaps the Arabic word, 'salaam') which indicates a full-orbed, rich well-being, health, happiness, peace, prosperity, beauty, harmony, justice, and so on in which everything works well together. That is, we experience all the Good and none of the Bad in the list in Chapter 1. The converse of the shalom is when we function poorly in at least one aspect - for example we might become prosperous (economic aspect) but impose unjust conditions on others or on the planet (juridical aspect). The shalom principle urges us to seek positive ('good') functioning in every aspect, and promises that if we do then 'good' repercussions are likely to ensue. Here it means that use of the IS should enhance the user's HLC functioning in each aspect and degrade it in none, compared with not using the IS. That is, it should bring benefit and not detriment in each aspect. Table 2 lists examples of benefit and detriment in each aspect that an IS might bring; such a table can stimulate analysis during evaluation of IS in use, and also in IS development. Table 2 Possible IS benefits and detriments But does this lead to a boring, vanilla-flavoured aspectual democracy? We can go beyond this, to something that rectifies distortions in the status quo. Often, the root of distortions is undue elevation of an aspect, and an IS can be used to ameliorate them by re-activating aspects of human living that are currently ignored. Sadly, usually the opposite happens because it is easier to make a case to implement an IS that assists the currently-elevated aspect. For example, virtual reality is used in architecture to allow quicker assessment of the visual aspect of designs - but some believe that architects already give undue attention to that aspect. Such distortion due to elevation of an aspect is an issue in the faith aspect, a distorted worldview. The solution also lies in the aspect of faith: courage. People can take courage to challenge the status quo. They can do so because they believe something deeply. 3.3 The Aspect Tree: A Visual Indicator of Success and Failure Thinking about individual aspects like this suggests a useful way of displaying the success and benefit of an IS in use. Fig. 1 shows an aspect tree, two bar charts back to back, one showing benefits in each aspect the other showing detrimental impact; they can look like a fir tree. With such a tool we can gain a quick overview of the main areas of benefit and detriment. The aspectual fir tree is a double-sided bar chart showing each aspect, with bars to the left indicating negative functioning or repercussions, and bars to the right indicating positive, as illustrated in Fig. 3. The length of the bars can be used to indicate the amount (number and/or strength) of positive and negative in each. This devise shows at a glance where the main benefits or problems might lie. Notice that there can be both positive and negative in any aspect. Figure 3. Aspect fir tree of IS success and failure It can be useful in a number of ways, especially if we take an intuitive grasp of aspectual normativity and analyse the complex lifeworld of use rather than some pre-structured account or prediction thereof. The aspect tree device may be used for both retrospective analysis or prospective analysis, during design or prediction. It may be a single tree, showing either functioning or repercussions or both together, or one in which functioning and repercussions are separated. But, as a pseudo-numerical device, the aspect tree can give an over-simplified picture if we are not careful. The following guidelines should be noted: » Never take the length of a bar as some kind of absolute value of aspectual functioning, and never compare two bars of similar length to conclude that functioning in one aspect is 'better' than in another. » But look at the overall patterns and groups. Often, as in Fig. 1, the main positive functioning or benefit lies in the earlier aspects, while the main negative functioning lies in the later ones. This should give cause for concern because the impact in the earlier aspects is likely to be more visible and to accrue in the short-term while the detrimental impact in the later aspects might become manifest only over the long term. This gives a false impression of the 'success' of a computer project if evaluation is undertaken too soon. » Then look at the longer bars. Do they truly indicate major repercussions or functionings, or do they indicate undue attention to these aspects during analysis? Make a specific study of these aspects, to determine which it is. » Look likewise at the short or zero bars. Were these aspects overlooked during analysis? Make a specific study to check, then redraw the tree. » Remember that everybody's understanding of the aspects is variable - by interviewees, authors and analysts - even though we all begin from an intuitive grasp of their meaning. So, any further analysis undertaken should include appropriate checks. In this way, the aspect tree device is not an end in itself so much as a stimulant to focus further analysis, which could be carried out using Winfield's MAKE method, described in chapter 6. 3.3 Is It Possible? But is it possible to achieve shalom in our HLC? Is it not the case that some aspects work against others? Surely, if we are too ethical in our business, always giving things away, then our business will go bust, and thus cease to exist? It is true that if we elevate the ethical aspect, and ignore the economic, then our business might suffer. But the shalom principle tells us to keep all aspects in balance: to consider each one. Dooyeweerd believed that the aspects are intrinsically in harmony. This contrasts with those who assume conflict between the demands of different aspects (e.g. economic and ethical). To answer the specific query above, it might be noted that the harmony between the economic and ethical and other aspects is supported by a wide range of current thinking. While we might not maximise profits by being generous, experience shows [Collins and Porras, 1998] that generosity and justice bring sustainable profits. This is likely to be the same with IS. The late Enid Mumford, pioneer of the socio-technical approach to IS, was one who believed in this. Stahl, in his tribute to her [Avison, et al., 2006,p.373] says "Most importantly, she had shown theoretically as well as practically that the assumption of reflective responsibility is not only possible, it is even economically viable in a market environment." But to achieve shalom - benefit in every aspect - is a challenge, for two reasons. A positive reason is that the nature of the harmony between the aspects requires creative exploration. A negative reason is worldview. Most worldviews distort our thinking, and usually lead us to focus on certain aspects at the expense of others. For example the Western worldview elevates the following aspects: » the economic aspect of money » the formative aspect of having control » the analytic aspect of rationality and science and it particularly tends to downplay the following aspects: » the faith aspect » the ethical aspect of self-giving » the aesthetic aspect of harmony. What this means is that to the extent that our aspirations and expectations and assumptions are governed by this worldview, we will over-play the first three aspects and downplay the latter three, whenever we instal or use an IS. As discussed elsewhere (chapter VIII of Basden [2008]), the ultimate solution for this is a change in worldview (ideological, 'religious'), so a purely rational approach will not solve the problem. However, some of its effects can be partly ameliorated by the ethical aspect of self-giving, to which we turn now. 3.4 The ethical aspect of self-giving If the active stakeholders are functioning well in ethical aspect of self- giving, as expressed, for instance, in the well-known norm of "Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you" [Luke 6:27-28, Good News Bible] then it is possible that negative functioning can have positive repercussions. There are at least three ways in which this aspect is important. It sets up an attitude in a community or organisation which allows all to become less defensive or competitive and, in their turn, more self-giving. This multiplies. It blocks the normal negative chain of repercussions ('dog eat dog'). Conflicts can be defused, even those based on clashing perspectives, because we are no longer seeking our own advantage, pushing our own views or protecting our own interests, but seeking blessing for others, listening to and understanding their views, and protecting their interests. Thirdly, The very success of information systems depends on this aspect. In Western cultures, we take the entering of information for granted. But Walsham points out [2001,p.55] that in some cultures people are unwilling to 'give away' information by entering it into an IS, because they fear others might take advantage of them. 'Giving away' information in this way involves the ethical aspect of self- giving. The success might be jeopardised by selfishness and self-interest. Many of us receive a too many unnecessary emails - notices of products, books, conferences, etc. as well as spam. Is this driven by the altruistic desire to give us all the information we need, or by the self-interested desire to gain 'customers' for their wares or services? The latter seems more likely and, as the Internet becomes increasingly used for self-interested purposes, it will lose its meaning, will increasingly waste people's time. So people will turn away from using email, and email might eventually be seen as a failure rather than a success in humanity. Thus Dooyeweerd's insight that the ethical aspect of self-giving is to be kept distinct from the juridical aspect of what is due is remarkably apposite. 3.5 'Making a World of Difference' Let us now examine one person's attempt to bring good to the world. The following text is taken from chapter IV of Basden [2008], but modified to suit this module. In his book Making a World of Difference: IT in a Global Context, Geoff Walsham [2001] provides an insightful discussion of HLC, ranging from individual use, through groupware, organisational use, inter-organisational and up to the level of society. In two early chapters he reviews a number of approaches, first on the macro level of contemporary society, modernisation, globalisation and the 'information age', then on the micro level of computers at work, covering issues of the relationship between data, information and knowledge, the role of IT, improvisation versus routine work and the appropriation of IT, and finally power and politics. Almost all Walsham's approaches are theoretical in nature. In Part 2, these approaches are assembled into a basket of conceptual and analytical tools, which he employs to analyse a number of case studies at the four levels from individual to inter- organisational, with a core interest at each level. At the individual level his core interest is in identity of those who use IT (vision of themselves: the kernel functioning of the pistic aspect). At the groupware level, it is teamwork. At the organisational level it is enterprise reorganisation. At the inter-organisational level it is trust. In Part 3, he addresses cultural and cross-cultural issues such as cultural values, with further studies. In Part 4 he discusses the study, suggesting directions and topics for future research. He concludes by saying, as mentioned in chapter 1 of this book, that his professional interest could be encapsulated in the question "Are we making a better world with IT?" The basket of analytical and conceptual tools that Walsham used is impressive for its variety and its ability to cover both macro and micro issues, especially when compared with those that other employ. The macro-level tools include views on modernity by Giddens, on the 'risk society' by Beck, on globalisation by Robertson, and on the 'information age' by Castells. The micro-level tools include views on data, information and knowledge by Checkland and Holwell and various thinkers in knowledge management, the lens of social construction of technology, Latour's Actor-Network Theory, views on improvisation by Suchman, Weick and Ciborra, views on cross- cultural appropriation of IT by various authors, various views on surveillance, and the lens of Foucault's notion of power-relationships. However, it is still limited, partly because most of the tools assume a theoretical attitude to the issues of IS use, rather than being open to the diversity and coherence of everyday experience. A detailed critique may be found in chapter IV in Basden [2008]. It results in Walsham taking a collection of narrow views, rather than a coherent broad view. He focuses on things like identity and power- relations. His emphasis is on work, especially professional work. This means that his framework for understanding is not attuned to other types of use, including home use, computer games, computer art, and the like. Most of his cases, even of individual working, involve organisational systems, so it is not clear to what extent his framework is suited to, for example, studying personal use of word processors or photographic software. This is not intended to be a criticism of Walsham as such, but rather to show that even the best of current thinking - which Walsham gives us - leaves much to be desired. [In a new version of these notes, this theme will be expanded.] Walsham's description of two cases exposes a diversity of lifeworld issues, and may be commended for displaying the humanity of all the participants. Support for this view can be found in aspectual analysis of the text (similar to that undertaken for Mitev's case), which shows almost all human aspects represented. But while the descriptions of cases exhibit a lifeworld diversity and meaning, the interpretation of them does not. This might be because his basket of tools seems more like a collection than a coherent whole, in that Walsham simply throws them all in together, without showing the relationships between them. He admits [p.62]: "The conceptual tools ... will be used to support analysis of these topics, but not in a mechanistic way. In other words, I will not use all of them explicitly in all the chapters, but rather use the conceptual tools selectively to illustrate specific analytical points." There is therefore every possibility (except perhaps for Walsham's own integrity) that he has selected the tools he prefers. Even when there is no undue selectivity, the analysis will be partial or distorted because some of the tools assume a theoretical rather than everyday attitude. Copyright (c) Andrew Basden, 20 September 2008, 22 September 2009. 20 September 2010.