CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN USE OF COMPUTERS 1. RICH MEDIA: HUC AND CMM Welcome to the Human Use of Computers (HUC) part of the Rich Media module. In this part you will learn about how human beings engage with ICT (information and communications technology), mainly that which involves computing devices. Rich Media is a new 2-semester module created from bringing together two previously separate module: Human Use of Computers (HUC), which was taught earlier, and Computer Multimedia (CMM), which was taught later. (In these notes I differentiate computer multimedia from original artistic multimedia, which did not use computers but rather brought together such things as poetry, music and dance.) Rather than just bolting them together, we have tried to interweave the content of the two modules, so that you can see how each relates to, and serves, the other. Here, briefly, is what each is concerned with: » HUC on its own: how human beings engage with ICT in various ways » CMM on its own: bringing various media together especially to present information or create a virtual environment » HUC in service of CMM: how to make your multimedia usable, informative and useful » CMM in service of HUC: how to make use of computers or ICT more effective, innovative and natural. 1.2 Human Use of Computers (HUC) Nowadays we all use computers in our lives, whether we are aware of it or not, for example the computer on our desk (most obvious), our mobile phone (which contains a powerful computer) and, least obvious, a lot of today's equipment like DVD players and cars contain computers. {*** Exercise: Think about your use of a piece of ICT equipment (e.g. your mobile phone or your computer) for a moment, then continue reading. ***} What did you think about? » The information in it, such as what is shown on screen? (e.g. "I must change my friend to their new number") » How you use it in life? (e.g. when you last rang your friend or they rang you) » The buttons and screen? (e.g. "That button is getting unreliable") {*** Note: Occastionally you will find a small piece enclosed in curly brackets and asterisks like this. These are exercises or extra things for you to think about. You are strongly recommended to do as many as you can, because they are designed to help you think and internalise what is taught here. Many of them will help you in exams. ***} On this module, you will learn that HUC (human use of computers) involves at least three different ways in which we relate to the computer: » how we engage with the meaningful information the computer contains or delivers to us (ERM: engagement with represented meaning-content) » how computers or ICT can help or hinder our daily lives (HLC: human living with compuers) » how we interact with the technology via a user interface (HCI: human-computer interaction). Or, if you like: HUC = ERM + HLC + HCI. NOTE: In older versions, and also Basden [2008], ERM (engagement with represented meaning) is called ERC (engagement with represented content). {*** Think: Did you think about your use of ICT, as requested above? Can you see each of these in your use of it? When you are entering a number into your mobile phone, you might be thinking in any of the above ways: » ERM: thinking of what this information means: who this number is for? or trying to remember the number for the person you want to contact? » HLC: thinking of what you want to say to this person? » HCI: thinking about pressing the right keys so you don't make a mistake in entering the number? See how it could be any of these three at different times. ***} 1.3 A Bit of History Here is a bit of history of HUC. The history has three types of player: computer builders, software researchers and users. The software research in one era would prepare the ground for the next. What was learned in each era is still valid and important, because it formed the foundation for all later ones. You should not see what was learned in earlier eras as 'old fashioned' and to be left behind. In the 1960s and 1970s there was the computer. A gigantic beast into which data was fed in batches and out of which data was printed, operated by specially-trained people. » Much software research was about programming and knowledge representation languages and algorithms, and how to make computers faster. It also began to investigate ways of interaction between computer and user. » Still useful today: Keyboards for entering text. Principles of knowledge representation and programming languages. In the 1970s and 1980s there was interaction. Users could interact with the beast, via terminals - slow 'teletypewriters (TTs)' in the 1980s and faster 'visual display units (VDUs) in the 1908s. In the 1970s, interaction was by text, often by a sequence of questions and answers, or by commands and results. In the 1980s, interaction was more by 'direct manipulation' using mouse and graphics. In the 1980s the personal computer became feasible, some for organisational (business) use, some for home use ('home computing', 'amateur computing', 'games computing'). »Much software research was about the user interface (UI), or human-computer interaction (HCI), and how to achieve graphics, animation and sound. Academic researchers dismissed games computing as beneath their interest and ignored it, but many of the innovations in HCI were devised by creative games programmers. Applications widened beyond business into art and leisure. The Apple Macintosh had great HCI and appealed to the artistic. The Atari and Amiga dominated the games and home markets. » Still useful today: Styles and technologies for HCI, such as mouse (or pad), joystick/pad and screen. The 'desktop' style of user interface. In the 1980s and 1990s three things emerged. In the 1980s and 1990s there was computer multimedia (CMM). (Multimedia as such, had been going for decades, in which readings, poetry, music, dance, etc. were brought together.) In computer multimedia (which we look at in this module) text, graphics, animation, video and sound began to be used together. At first, this was mainly in games computing, in order to give the games-player a good experience. But in the late 1990s Microsoft caught on to this and tried to convince us, with Window 1995, that multimedia was new! » Much software research was undertaken by creative games companies. But increasingly academic departments began to take computer multimedia seriously. » Still useful today: CMM technologies and techniques. In the 1990s there was proximal user interface. Interaction with the computer became more 'proximal', in which the interface became so natural that users no longer needed to think about it. No longer was HCI seen as the user issuing commands to distinct objects; instead, the user was able to forget about the tool and get on with their 'job', whether this was drawing a graphic, playing a game or entering knowledge into a knowledge base. ICT became more 'usable' and 'easy to use'. Immersion in virtual reality became feasible. Games boxes became popular. » Key publications: Winograd & Flores [1986] 'Understanding Computers and Cognition', Norman [1990] 'Why interfaces don't work'. » Research was into how to make interaction more natural or 'proximal'. See Basden & Hibberd [1996] and Basden, Brown, Tetlow, Hibberd & Brandon [1996]. » Still useful today: Ideas for making interaction more natural, for example in mobile phones and Apple technology. Games boxes. In the 1980s and 1990s there was increasing recognition of the difference between usability and usefulness, such as in business [Landauer 1996]. And between 'wow' graphics in a game (which got the game sold) and good gameplay (which gave lasting satisfaction and fun). Perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness became recognised as main determiners of whether ICT was adopted in organisations [Davis 1989]. In parallel with this, there was a shift of interest from the individual user to the organisation, and how ICT serves the organisation in terms of usefulness or 'productivity' etc. [Landauer 1996] or 'emancipation' [Hirschheim, Klein & Lyytinen 1995]. » Key publication: Davis [1989] 'Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology'. Landauer [1996] 'The trouble with computers: Usefulness, usability and productivity'. Hirshheim, Klein & Lyytinen [1995] 'Information Systems Development and Data Modelling: Conceptual and Philosophical Foundations'. » Research: Trying to understand what usefulness is, and how it differs from usability. Also, in IS research, a growing interest in philosophical paradigms, which determine how we see HUC. » Still useful today: The importance of usefulness in people's lives. » Relevance to these lectures: We explore usefulness under HLC: human living with computers, and ease of use under HCI. But Davis and Langauer and others did not see the difference between HCI and ERM - engaging with the technology and engaging with the meaning of information. In the 1990s and 2000s the world has been concerned about 'virtual reality', which is important in computer games and in Internet-mediated social networking. In a computer game, we fight dragons etc., not just interact with colours and shapes on the screen. In the Second Life virtual world, we engage with avatars. On social networking sites we engage, not directly with our friends but with information about them as though they are our friends. How do we know what these people are really like? In similar vein, how do we know who has really sent us an email that promises wonderful things? And, in such a mundane thing as a database, how do we know whether the information is true or not? This is the issue of ERM: engaging with represented meaning. » Research: How make information work for us. Information fulfilment [Burke, 2009]. » Useful today: The world is just waking up to ERM as a separate issue. In the 1990s and 2000s computers became connected to the Internet and ICT became mobile (e.g. mobile phones). Web browsing became important to find information. It was recognised that meaning represented 'in' a computer could not stand alone, but had to refer beyond itself to all other meaning represented on other computers the world over - hence the World Wide Web, and such things as Wikipedia. The Internet also became useful for delivery - for shopping etc. - for collective action to build information resources (such as Wikepedia and the host of 'applications' that make Facebook exciting) - and for social networking. HUC and CMM became part of everyday life of ordinary people, such that they no longer think of it as 'special'. » Key publications: Too many to name. » Research: Into connectivity and mobility. Into the dramatic effect of ordinary people using ICT. 1.4 Why HUC and CMM are Important As a result, both CMM and HUC (HCI, ERM, HLC) have become very important in devising good web pages and applications, and also good mobile phones. Understanding CMM can make them attractive and effective, and understanding HUC can make them useful, informative and easy to use. But, as just said, ordinary users are so used to good CMM and HUC that they take it for granted. In this module we 'lift the lid' of these devices to try to understand what makes them so good that these are taken for granted. This will help you respect more the decades' of work that has made them possible, and also might help you find principles by which to propose your own new innovative ideas in HUC and CMM. In addition, understanding the principles of HUC and CMM can help you prepare better presentations. I would like, first, to explain what this is all about. This part of this module is rather different from other modules, in that it offers ways of thinking and seeing things, rather than theories. Many students in the past have found this module exciting and stimulating. I trust you will too. Read on ... 2. THE 'FLAVOUR' OF THESE LECTURES Some students find what is taught here more challenging than other modules but they find it more exciting and interesting. There are two reasons for this: it is unlike many modules in being a 'bridge' between the technical and the non-technical (business or social- organizational) issues of the degree and it is unlike some other modules in offering frameworks for thinking instead of ready-made solutions. The fact that it is somewhat harder or different from other modules is taken into account when examination papers and assignments are marked, so that no student should feel at a disadvantage. 2.1 Our Attitude: The Everyday Experience of the Human Being Many texts on human factors or user interface teach the prevailing accepted theories about these topics. Yes, we will do some of that here, but more importantly, we will try to take an everyday attitude. We will try to understand the everyday experiences we have of computers and ICT, in each of HCI, ERM and HLC. This means placing the human being in the centre. What does this entail? In this module we mean several things. One is the workings of the individual user of the computer or ICT, which is covered by the sciences of psychology. Another is the human user as a whole person in a social context, with purposes, tasks and roles, constrained by limited resources, with hopes and fears, with attitude and vision. We will find, however, that what we call the lingual aspect of life, our ability to represent meaning in symbols is central; after all, we all want to communicate. We give a broad overview of the topics at various levels, and pointers for those who are interested in understanding the human user in more detail. How do HCI, ERM and HLC work together as part of the human activity that uses computers or ICT? This is discussed towards the end, but briefly: In interacting with the machine (HCI) especially lingually we engage with what the symbols on screen mean (ERM) and, as a result, we do things in our lives (HLC): HCI ---> ERM ---> HLC. It is HLC that is the most important, and the other two are in service of it. 2.2 Bridge Between ICT and its Application This module does not lie neatly in either the social or 'soft' side or the technical or 'hard' side of the degree course. Rather, it is a bridge between them, and the module aims to give the student an understanding of this bridge. This is important in many real-life applications of information technology, where the higher quality consultants and designers must be aware not only of both 'hard' and 'soft' issues, but also of how they link, so that they can bring true benefit in a climate in which up to 90 % of other information systems fail. The challenge of this module for the student is to understand the bridge. The content of this module is heavily influenced, not by standard human computer interaction academic frameworks but by the experience the course deliverer gained in 14 years of practice applying information systems in the pharmaceutical, health, chemical and construction sectors. It is a bridge because both the technical and non-technical parts share the same way of thinking: multi-aspectual human functioning, which is explained in chapter II. 2.3 The Module as Framework According to Lyytinen and Hirschheim [1987] at least 50% of information systems fail, 60% to Cotterill and Law [1993], 50%, to Whyte and Bytheway [1996], 60% to Butterfield and Pendegraft [1996], and 75% to Gladden [1982]. What is going on, and how do we prevent failure and achieve success? This is what this module wants to help you understand. The module is designed, not to give ready-mode solutions, not to give training in, for example, web page design, but rather to give a framework in which the student can develop an understanding of human factors of information systems that will remain valid and useful over the longer term. For example, when the fashion for web page design has passed, what then? You need the kind of understanding and 'wisdom' that will carry over into the next that thing that you find round the corner. It is the intention of this module to offer you something to help you understand that. In it you will find frameworks for understanding: » everyday experience as multi-aspectual human functioning » the three main types of multi-aspectual functioning that constitute human use of computers: ERM, HLC, HCI, » the nature of ERM, and what makes for a good quality application, » the nature of HLC, and how to tackle success and failure, even if these are unexpected repercussions, indirect or long-term, » the nature of HCI, and what makes it good. Using such frameworks for understanding, and the concepts and guidelines attached to them, the student can: a) find and develop creative solutions, without, on the one hand, being overly constrained by today's (or yesterday's) practice, and on the other being unprincipled, b) learn the art of screen design when that is needed, and be able to assess the quality and appropriateness of the material learned, c) apply the whole framework across the wide range of applications that will be encountered in 'real life' once the student has graduated. I trust you will enjoy the module, and gain benefit therefrom that will remain with you years after you have left the University. 2.4 What is Taught about HUC The rest of the Introduction explains about the HUC part of this module. Then chapter II looks at the human being who uses the computer, and takes note of types or aspects of human functioning, using philosophy. Chapter III looks at HCI. Chapter IV looks at ERM. Chapter V looks at HLC. Chapter VI looks at how HCI, ERM and HLC work together, which leads into some issues which some think are 'advanced'. Finally, chapter VII reviews (this part of) the module. In particular, we notice that we have been using philosophy! We separate out HCI, ERM and HLC more precisely, then recombine them at the end. P.S. An Apology and Explanation This version of the module is relatively new. For the past 15 years, I based the module on the notion of levels of description of computer systems. But, this became rather creaky at its joints, and during 2008 I worked out a new and better way of understanding Human Factors and User Interface, and discussed that in a new book, 'Philosophical Frameworks for Understanding Information Systems'. I have rewritten the module to take advantage of this material. Some of the text here is taken from the book, while some is taken from the old version of the module. I have tried to make sure that it has been knitted together properly, but there might be some loose ends. I apologise if you find any that confuse you. Please point them out to me, and be patient. I will explain them. In particular, if I talk about levels, I mean aspects. Here is a table of their correlation, to which you might like to refer if you find any: » ML (material level) = physical aspect » HL (hardware level) = organic aspect » BL (bit level) = psychic aspect » SL (symbol level) = analytic and formative aspects » KL (knowledge level) = lingual aspect » TL (tacit level) = social aspect. Copyright (c) Andrew Basden Andrew Basden, 21 September 2009, 28 January 2010, RM: 20 September 2010.