CHAPTER II. HUMAN LIFE AND EXPERIENCE WITH COMPUTERS AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS 1. INTRODUCTION When I was working in the chemical industry in the early 1980s, my manager had been given a top-of-the-range PC, had attended training courses on how to use its software, but commented: "I know how to use it, and it's easy to use - but what the heck do I use it for?" This epitomises the difference between ease of use and usefulness. Just making software (or a website) easy to use does not bring business benefits. This module aims to help you understand human factors of computers or information systems - of which there are many. Imagine you are a nurse using a medical database as you (a nurse) try to find out details about a patient you are treating. What do you experience? Here are some possibilities: » "I don't like the colours on the screen!" » "Oh dear, this system is so slow today!" » "But at least the data is accurate and up-to-date, I suppose." » "What's this number here in the corner for? What does it mean; never noticed it before." » "And what does that icon mean?" » "I see this patient is 56 and yet he was given xxx drug last year!" [knows that xxx is not good for that age group] » "I tried to see the doctor about that, but she was not available, so I had to wait ages. How annoying!" Think: The first five experiences, though different among themselves, are different in a deeper way from the fifth and sixth. Now imagine you are playing a computer game. » You see a screen in front of you, with various colours and shapes. » You hold a mouse, move it and click its buttons. » You see various shapes and words on the screen. » You find the colour scheme on the screen quite unpleasant - all dark browns. » You are exploring a cave. » A dragon appears round the corner, breathing flames. » You are fighting the dragon, and get a bit burned. You first fire an arrow and miss. So you use your sword with magic power that fills the dragon with fear. You use a wand of frost which is effective against the dragon. » Eventually you manage to defeat the dragon, and find a jewel dropped where it died. But you are so hurt that you must rest for a while to recover, and you heal your wounds. » The fight with the dragon took so long that you missed your train which would have taken you to an interview for a job you wanted. How annoying! » As a result, you lose the job! Maybe you decide never again to waste time playing computer games? Again, the first four experiences are different from the rest. The next four are your experience as though you were living in the game. The final two are your experience in real life. It is a similar pattern to the nurse's use of the patient database Whatever type of computer system you are using, you have many and diverse experiences of it. In this module we seek to understand these, in order that: » you can evaluate people's use of IS (information systems) » you can see how to improve use of IS » you can design better IS » or you can just understand something of what is going on. 1.1 Three Types of Human Functioning With Computers The difference between pushing a mouse and appreciating colour schemes or reading data off a screen will be considered later. But the difference between these, and fighting a dragon or finding out about a patient, and what you do in real life, will be discussed here. Notice how the nurse using a patient database and you playing a computer game have more or less the same three basic types of experience. One is an experience of the user interface, or the interaction with the computer, reading symbols off the screen that mean something. The next is an experience of the meaning-content of the database or game, what the symbols mean. The third is an experience of how real life is affected by using the IS. In this module we will call them: » human-computer interaction (HCI), where we take into account the relationship between the human user and the computer; » engagement with represented meaning (ERM), where we take into account how the humans involved understand the meaningful information conveyed to them by the computer and how they get involved with this information; » human living with computers (HLC), where we take into account the lives of users and other stakeholders, including their work life and other parts of their lives. In the cases above, HCI involves: » Seeing a screen » Moving a mouse » Reading numbers etc. » Appreciating the colour scheme » and a lot more. In the cases above, ERM involves: » Knowing what drugs the patient is on » Knowing where you are in the cave (or not) » Seeing a dragon appear » Realising you must fight » Using all your skill and equipment to fight » Your victory and the winning of the jewel » Your resting and recovering after the fight » and a lot more. In the cases above, HLC involves: » Trying to contact the doctor » Feeling annoyed when you must wait » Spending a long time playing the game » Missing the train » Feeling annoyed that you missed the train » Losing the job, and feeling angry with yourself. {*** Exercise: The next time you use an IS look at it in these three ways, and write down your experiences. This can provide useful material for your exam. ***} In this module, we will examine the structure of each and the norms that guide each, and distinguish good from bad versions of each. This will give you a very rich understanding of IS in business or elsewhere (such as the home). 2. THE DIVERSITY OF HUMAN EXPERIENCE Each of HCI, ERM and HLC is diverse. For example, in HCI, we can see colours on screen, we can ignore the colours used and focus on the information, we can ignore both the colours themselves and the information and focus on the overall aesthetic impact of the screen, we can ignore all these and become concerned with how inefficient the HCI seems to be (for example, a web page might be slow in downloading). For example, in ERM, we find meaning-content about plants, we might read about the way the plants grow, the colour of their flowers, the beauty of those colours, the economic value of the plant, the cultural significance, the religious significance, and so on. For example, in HLC, we might find that the reading this about the plants makes us think of those plants in a different way, we cherish it more, it forms part of our conversation with our friends, and perhaps we go so far as to set up a business to grow and sell that plant! (For the sake of variety, that uses a different example from the patient database and the computer game above, but we'll return to those.) {*** Try, at this point, to see the diversity of your own HCI, ERM, HLC in something you are accessing on the computer right now. ***} 2.1 Diversity in Each In each of everyday HCI, ERM, HLC there is immense diversity. But it so happens they are diverse in the same basic way. For example, the computer game above: # All three can involve Feeling and emotion. For example: » You feel as you push the mouse: you feel the pressure of the mouse on your hand, and you get a bit annoyed that it seems jerky today. This is feeling in HCI. » You feel annoyed in your fighting the dragon that you missed with your arrow. This is feeling in ERM. » You feel annoyed that you missed the train, or have to wait for the doctor. This is feeling in HLC. # All three can involve resource issues (e.g. time). For example: » HCI resources: You are downloading the game from the Internet and it takes time, or the patient database is held elsewhere and it seems very slow today. Another HCI resource is limited screen size. » ERM resources: You have only a short time in which to kill the dragon; if you do not act fast enough, it will kill you. In the patient database, perhaps the patient's drug treatment is nearing its end, so you have limited time in which to act concerning the drug. » HLC resources: You have to waste time waiting for the doctor. You find you have wasted time and missed the train. 2.2 Aspects of Human Life and Reality In fact, all the diversity of experience in any of the three functionings are because human beings have many ways of experiencing life. We have many aspects of life. In this module we will make use of a suite of aspects of human life devised by the Dutch philosopher, Herman Dooyeweerd. The reason why we use this suite rather than any others is explained towards the end of the module. He proposed that there are fifteen aspects in which we function in life: # Quantitative aspect of our functioning: We functioning quantitatively, by having a certain number or amount of things (e.g. two eyes and no other number) # Spatial aspect of our functioning: We function spatially by taking up room. So does our computer. # Kinematic aspect of our functioning: We function kinematically by moving. This can be anything from the movement of our hands as we operate the keyboard and mouse, the movement of our gaze as we look at the screen and elsewhere (e.g. when someone comes into the room, we turn to look at them). (There is also movement within our bodies, such as of blood in our veins, though that is not often very relevant to us here. There is also movement within the computer, such as of the fan moving air to cool it, or of electricity in the wires and components.) # Physical aspect of our functioning: We function physically by using energy, and exerting forces e.g. on the seat on which we are sitting or on the piece of plastic that is the mouse. # Biotic (organic) aspect of our functioning: We function biotically as we breathe, digest food, etc., and in various other life functions. Our bodies have organs, each with a different purpose or capability. # Psyhcic (sensory) aspect of our functioning: We function psychically (or psychologically) in seeing, hearing, feeling, responding, having emotions, etc. # Analytical aspect of our functioning: We function analytically by making distinctions, by forming concepts of things in our minds, or by trying to clarify our thoughts. # Formative aspect of our functioning: We function formatively when we shape or control or plan things - we might shape a lump of clay to make a pot, shape marks on paper to write or draw, shape our thoughts and concepts into coherent ideas, shape words when we speak or write, shape social groups or institutions, plan our spending, and so on. The formative aspect is closely linked with technology and technique. With convenience, with achieving things. With deliberate intention. # Lingual aspect of our functioning: We function lingually when we make notes, make signs, scribble memos, and also when we speak or listen and write or read. # Social aspect of our functioning: We function socially when we treat other people as people rather than things, being either friendly or hostile, and either giving or withholding respect. We function socially when we recognise role or status in a group or institution. Concerned with agreement among people, e.g. standards. # Economic aspect of our functioning: We function economically when we manage limited resources (e.g. of money, time, raw materials, etc.) For example, in an exam if we either do or do not spend too long on one question, this is an issue of the economic aspect. # Aesthetic aspect of our functioning: We function aesthetically when we enjoy something or find it interesting or boring, or when we find something funny, or when we find something beautiful, or when we create any of these, or when we create musical harmony, and so on. Also when we create harmony in life. # Juridical aspect of our functioning: We function juridically when we try to ensure that someone or something get their due (or conversely, when we cheat them of what is due to them). Rights and responsibilities are issues within the juridical aspect. So are laws and legal systems. # Ethical aspect of our functioning: We function ethically when we go beyond what is due, and give of ourselves, sacrificially. We function ethically when we are generous without expecting reward. Ethical is not just right versus wrong: the Ethical aspect is an aspect of attitude which is either self-giving or selfishness. # Faith aspect of our functioning (sometimes called the pistic aspect or certitudinal aspect): We function in the faith aspect when we believe something, when we are committed and loyal to something, when we have a vision of who we are. Placing trust in something. Religious worship is also a functioning in the faith aspect. See below for more on the faith aspect. 2.3 Multi-aspectual Human Functioning Aspects are spheres of meaning. In each aspect things are meaningful in a different way. For example, consider what you are doing now, reading this. You are doing several things at the same time, each in a different sphere of meaning. For example: » You are reading. To say that is meaningful in the lingual aspect. » You are probably reading this for the purpose of eventually satisfying the requirements of the degree course. "Satisfying requirements" is a concept that is meaningful in the juridical aspect. » You see yourself as a student (or whatever you are). Seeing yourself as something is believing you are that thing (at least for now). That is the faith aspect. » As you are reading this, you are looking at the page or screen - psychic aspect. » You are also breathing to stay alive - biotic aspect. That's five aspects in which you are functioning. These five aspects are just five different ways of seeing your simple task of reading this - or, if you like, different 'levels' of your activity. If you examine yourself closely, you will probably find almost all the other aspects, especially the later ones. These aspects, these ways of being meaningful, cannot be explained in terms of each other. {*** Exercise: As you get to know the aspects, begin to look at whatever you are doing in everyday life; you will be surprised how many aspects what you are doing has. ***} 2.4 The Faith Aspect "The faith aspect is irrelevant to HUC." Wrong! The faith aspect is of crucial importance, because our expectations, assumptions and aspirationat are faith functioning. They are things we believe or commit to - usually without being aware that we are doing so. Though we might not be aware of them, they have a great effect on our HUC. For example, what do we expect and take for granted about the user interface (HCI)? {*** Exercise: Write down a long list of things you are used to in using your usual word processor, such as MSWord. My usual word processor is Protext, which is a very powerful one, but not WYSIWYG. I have set up macros so that with one keystroke I can move from sentence to sentence, and I can mark an entire heading as of one of a given number of fonts, almost without looking. That is what I am used to - so I find MSWord very cumbersome to use! But others would probably find Protext rather difficult to use. So: write down a list of things you are used to. ***} For example, what kinds of benefit do we expect from using our information system or software? This is often determined by our worldview, which is a shared belief about what is important in life. Here are some examples of worldviews: » Economics-oriented worldview: We expect the IS to reduce costs or increase profits. If it does not do these things, but instead makes work life more pleasant, those who hold an economics- oriented worldview tend to think it is a waste of time. » Justice-oriented worldview: We expect use of the IS to work towards greater equality in the workplace. If it does not, we think of the IS as harmful. » Aesthetics-oriented worldview: We expect use of the IS to be pleasant and fun rather than a chore. If it is a chore, we get fed up with it, even if we find it increases profits and justice. And so on. Each worldview tends to elevate one aspect and ignore the others. But best HLC is when we are committed to every aspect equally. 2.5 Some Examples That might sound very good, but how does it relate to information systems? It is the aim of this module to explore that. However, just to let you see how useful an aspectual analysis can be, we will consider three examples. One is HCI, one ERM and one HLC. 2.5.1 Aspects of HCI and UI The aspects of HCI and user interface (UI) relate both to the UI itself (Example 1) and also our own characteristics as human beings (Example 2): Quantitative aspect: Amount and number of interactions and devices. Example 1: 1 screen, 2 loudspeakers, 1 mouse Example 2: 2 eyes, ears, 2 hands Spatial aspect: Spatial arrangements, location and size. Example 1: Where things are on screen, vertical and horizontal alignment in tables Example 2: Where I sit in relation to computer. Kinematic aspect: Movement Example 1: Animation Example 2: I move the mouse Physical aspect: How both the UI and our bodies engage physically. Example 1: Mechanical mouse slipping on mat! Example 2: Spilling coffee over keyboard! Example 3: The DVD door is stuck; see below. Organic (biotic) aspect: How the user interface matches the our organs like eyes, ears, hands, and whether it affects our health. Example 1: Mouse too small (or large) for my hand. Example 2: Feeling tired Psychic aspect: The ability to see and identify shapes, colours, movement or other changes on screen, to hear and identify sounds from the speakers and to control mouse, keyboard, etc. Example 1: Yellow text on white background difficult to see Example 2: Visual impairment Analytic aspect: Our ability to differentiate and identify what types of 'data' or concepts the shapes and sounds are expressing. Example 1: Small circle on screen: is it letter O or number 0? Line on screen: does its length signify anything? Example 2: Do I recognise this shape on screen (e.g. a logo)? Formative aspect: The structure of this information. Example 1: The grouping of icons on toolbar, or entries in menus Example 2: I don't know in which menu to look for what I want Lingual aspect: That the shapes etc. on screen, or sounds via speakers, mean something, their meaning-content. (This is the link to ERM.) Example 1: In a news website, is the content accurate, trustworthy and up-to-date? Example 2: In a computer game, is what is seen easily understood, within the intention of the game? Social aspect: The cultural connotations and acceptability of the UI and interactions. Example 1: Cross-cultural acceptability Example 2: Standards, e.g. Web accessibility standards. Economic aspect: The limited resources of the UI. Example 1: Limited screen area Example 2: Download time of web pages Aesthetic aspect: The design style of the screen or sound. Example 1: Contemporary, retro styles; fun or boring? Example 2: Does the whole UI 'hang together'? Juridical aspect: How well the UI does justice to the users or the information meaning-content. Example 1: Is look&feel appropriate to content? Example 2: Does the UI do justice to user (e.g. blind, deaf, etc.)? Ethical aspect: Is it a self-giving or self-interested UI? Example 1: Generous UI gives more than necessary. e.g. several different ways of getting the information, extra features useful to users. Example 2: Is the UI or web page too much 'in your face', promoting itself rather than serving the user? Faith aspect: What is the vision behind the UI? Example 1: What is main vision that drove design of the UI, e.g. 'to help users' or 'to show my artistic prowess' or 'to follow object-oriented design principles'? Example 2: Do users trust the UI? Example 3: Aspects of "Technology lets you down!" Here's an example from real life. As a visiting teacher, my wife had a DVD to play in class. The class teacher pressed the Open button on the DVD, but it would not move. (Note that 'user interface' is not just screen and speakers, but also these kinds of thing.) She kept on pressing, explaining it was 'sometimes' difficult, but it would not open. So it looked like the DVD presentation could not be given. Another teacher said it was the same on her computer. Eventually, the thing opened and she put her DVD in. This was the physical and organic aspects. But the presentation was just shadows moving on the screen, almost unable to be seen, and was unusable (this is psychic and analytic aspect). So the quality of teaching of the children was impaired - but this latter relates to HLC (see below) not HCI. Her comment: "Technology lets you down." Each aspect of HCI will be examined in detail in the HCI chapter, where we will look at HCI theories as well as practice. 2.5.2 Aspects of ERM ERM concerns the meaning-content that is represented or signified by the symbols of the HCI - which includes the meaning of what we see on screen, what we hear via the speakers, what commands or information we input into the computer. The quality of this information content is very important in almost every kind of application. Content is particularly important in computer games and virtual reality such as 'Second Life', because it determines the 'realism' of the game or the 'presence' in virtual reality. Here is an overview of how each aspect might be relevant to meaning-content of a computer game, in which a character goes round exploring a dungeon or other terrain. (It is taken from the game ZAngband, which will be more closely examined in the ERM lectures.) When judging a computer game, you can ask: Is it realistic in each of the following aspects, or, where the game deliberately goes against such reality, does it still make sense? » Quantitative - Character has certain amounts and numbers of things. » Spatial - Can character orientate themselves? » Kinematic - How easily can character move around? » Physical - Are solid things solid? Does force push or hit things? » Biotic (Organic) - Eating, drinking, resting, etc.? » Psychic - Does the character have realistic feelings? Can they hear or see in the game? » Analytic - Can the character identify things they come across? » Formative - Does character or player have to make plans? Construct objects? » Lingual - Can character or player make notes, or correspond with others? Are there signs or notes to read? » Social - Does character operate alone or in group? Friends or enemies? » Economic - Does character have to be careful to obtain and conserve various resources? » Aesthetic - Is playing fun? Surprises? » Juridical - What is due to each type of character? What are the laws within the game? How are these laws policed? » Ethical - If the character is generous or self-giving, does this improve the game or its atmosphere? » Faith - What is the character about in the game? Is loyalty and commitment rewarded? Is there realistic representation of religion? A similar analysis may be made of content of a website, a social networking page, a knowledge base, a database or indeed almost any information system - even a film or book. This will be explained more in the ERM chapter. 2.5.3 Aspects of HLC Here we think about aspects of human life in which use of a computer or other information system is significant. This example is taken from the Elsie example in Appendix 1. The user is a quantity surveyor, who is using Elsie to set a budget for a client who wishes to build a new offices development. » Quantitative - Increases the number of times he sees the client. » Spatial - Should the client seek either a bigger site, or consider a smaller development? » Psychic - Users feel happy about Elsie. » Analytic - Using Elsie helped clarify client requirements. » Formative - Using Elsie helped develop a specification for the building. » Lingual - Using Elsie helped communication with client and recording of the process of discussion. » Social - Using Elsie helped enhance surveyor-client relationships. » Economic - Using Elsie helped work out how to reduce costs. » Aesthetic - Using Elsie was enjoyable, and helped harmony between surveyor and client. » Juridical - Using Elsie helped do justice to the client's real needs, as distinct from what they thought they wanted. » Ethical - Surveyors were happy to sacrifice 'power' they used to wield over client, as experts; see Appendix 1. » Faith - Surveyors saw themselves less as experts to whom clients came for advice and more as partners with client working towards shared goal. How to use aspects to design and evaluate HLC will be explained and discussed in the HLC chapter. 3. WHY ASPECTS? Why do we consider these aspects? That is: Does this above not seem rather too complex, especially up-front like this? What do aspects do for us? What are the benefits of using aspects? How can we analyse aspects in pfactice? Let us consider these questions in turn. 3.1 Complexity There are two types of complexity: the complexity of the real world, which it is usually necessary for us to face head-on, and complexity which we unnecessarily introduce because we are thinking about reality in a false way. If Dooyeweerd is correct about the aspects (and there are good reasons for thinking he was not far wrong, which are discussed in the final chapter) then these are the necessary aspects of everyday life. In fact, it is usually the case that when we start out with an over-simplified view, we end up making things more complex than they need to be. It is better to face the complexity right from the start. However we can reduce the complexity of the list of aspects by grouping them. The first three aspects are the mathematical aspects, and are usually investigated via mathematical disciplines: arithmetic, algebra, calculus, geometry, topology and kinematics. » Quantitative - quantities » Spatial - space » Kinematic - movement These mathematical aspects provide the means of measuring things. The physical, biotic and psychic aspects are aspects of, respectively, inert stuff, living things (plants) and sentient things (animals). » Physical - Characteristic of all material and energy » Biotic (Organic) - Characteristic of all living things » Psychic - Characteristic of all sentient things The remaining aspects are the human aspects. But they are split into two: the individual and the social. First are the aspects of the human individual, which are aspects of human freedom: » Analytic - I can freely focus my attention on anything I like, and distinguish it from its surroundings. » Formative - I can shape things creatively, and not just by instinct (birds build nests by instinct) » Lingual - I can set down my thoughts by signs and symbols, so that they remain separate from myself; e.g. my notes to myself. Then the social aspect itself: » Social - cooperation, respect, setting up institutions, shared background understanding (called 'lifeworld' by some philosophers) Then the aspects which depend on, and are deeply affected by the social group to which we belong, and the background understand we share with it: » Economic - sharing and managing resources with joint carefulness; we need social activity in order to do this » Aesthetic - style, harmony, fun, humour, beauty, art; we need to be economic rather than wasteful to be good art » Juridical - justice, injustice, legal systems, policing systems; » Ethical - self-giving and generosity to others, going beyond what is due, or self-interest and damaging competition; we need to know what is due to someone if we are to go beyond it. » Faith - commitment and loyalty, vision, creed and religion; we need to give of ourselves if we are to be committed. {*** Refer back to the above groups to help you understand what the aspects are. ***} 3.2 What Aspects Are and Do So far we have treated aspects as mere categories, but they are a lot more than that. Understanding this can help us understand them better. 3.2.1 Aspects are Different Ways in which things are Meaningful Aspects are spheres of meaning. In each aspect is a constellation of things that gain their meaning or purpose in terms of the aspect. For example saying that somebody is a policeman is saying something about him that is meaningful in the juridical aspect, saying that he plays golf says something meaningful in the aesthetic aspect, saying that he is middle-income is in the economic aspect, saying that he writes reports well is in the lingual aspect, and saying that he has a loud voice is in the psychic aspect, and so on. Aspects are ways in which we function, they are types of activity we do. For example: Quantitative I am one; you and I together are two Spatial I am here, you are there Kinematic We move Physical We exert force Biotic (Organic) We eat, breathe Psychic We see, hear, feel, move Analytic We distinguish and differentiate things Formative We shape and form things and plan Lingual We speak, write, etc. Social We relate to others and respect them Economic We conserve and manage Aesthetic We beautify things, make jokes, play Juridical We work for justice Ethical We serve others and do things for them Faith We commit ourselves to others, to beliefs, to courses of action, to our God. 3.2.2 Inter-aspect Dependency Later aspects depend on earlier ones. This can help us understand the order among them. Quantitative (Does not depend on any other aspect) Spatial Spatial size a kind of amount Kinematic Cannot have movement without space Physical Cannot have physics or chemistry without movement and space Biotic (Organic) Cannot have life without physical-chemical processes like solution and diffusion Psychic Cannot have feeling, sensing, memory and other mental activity unless you are alive Analytic Cannot conceptualise, nor make distinctions, unless you have mental activity Formative Cannot form things unless we can conceptualise them Lingual Cannot make utterances (spoken or written) unless we can form them Social Cannot relate to others very well, cannot respect them, and cannot form social institutions, unless we can communicate Economic Cannot share and manage resources in the fullest way unless we can relate to others Aesthetic Cannot produce good art or humour or sport unless we manage resources carefully; "Less is more in art" [C.S. Lewis] Juridical Cannot maintain justice unless we have a holistic picture Ethical Cannot go beyond what is due unless we know what is due Faith Cannot commit ourselves without self-giving. This is why, for example, the post-social aspects all depend on the social. 3.2.3 Aspects are Distinct Types of Good (or Bad) Aspects are spheres of law or normativity. Normativity is about good and bad. Each aspect after the physical defines a particular way of being good or bad, something to be sought and something to be avoided - and they apply in all three of HCI, ERC, HLC, and other activities of life: Biotic (Organic) Good = health; Bad = disease Psychic Good = alertness, mental health; Bad = sensory deprivation Analytic Good = clarity; Bad = confusion Formative Good = creativity; Bad = destruction, chaos Lingual Good = undertandability; Bad = misunderstanding Social Good = respect, friendship; Bad = disrespect, enmity Economic Good = frugality; Bad = waste, squandering Aesthetic Good = harmony, fun, beauty; Bad = disharmony, boredom, ugliness Juridical Good = justice; Bad = injustice Ethical Good = generosity and self-giving; Bad = selfishness and self-centredness Faith Good = loyalty, vision, courage, faith; Bad = disloyalty, lack of vision, cowardice, infidelity. As you can see, there are many ways in which something can be good or bad; in fact, something can be good in one aspect but bad in another. With these we will be able to assess the quality or otherwise of HCI, ERM, HLC. 3.3 Benefits of Thinking About Aspects There are several benefits of seeing anything - including HCI, ERM and HLC - in terms of aspects. Perhaps the most immediate benefits is that it can help us separate out issues that should be separated, so as to reduce confusion in our thinking and analysis. For example: In thinking about a website it is often useful to separate out the aesthetic issues from the juridical issues of how well it covers the information that is appropriate. In thinking about a business, it is useful to separate out the financial issues from the social ones of whether people relate well to each other. Otherwise, we find ourselves focusing on one issue at the expense of the others. Thinking aspectually can help avoid category errors in our thinking and reasoning. For example "It will sell well because it is technically advanced" is a false logic that has caused the demise of many companies. Selling well is a social and economic matter, while technically advanced is a formative matter. Separating out the aspects can allow something to be goods and bad in different ways. For example, a website can be nice and clear to read because it has a large black font on light background (psychic aspect) but it can look terrible (aesthetic aspect). Thinking aspectually can help us avoid overlooking important issues. Frequently we take something for granted, but if we run through the aspects, checking each in turn, we can highlight the one we take for granted. Separating out the aspects can help us understand errors. See HCI especially. Finally, in Dooyeweerd's suite of aspects, each aspect centres on something that we can grasp with our intuition. Thinking aspectually becomes natural after a time - persist with it! 3.4 Aspectual Analysis Aspectual analysis involves noting the ways in which each aspect expresses itself in the situation being analysed, often seeking balance. Here are a few, which we will use during the module. » Seeing the aspects of a situation or thing. For example, you look at what you are doing now and try to see in what ways each aspect is meaningful in describing what you are doing. Another example is to analyse a text, and see what is the main aspect that gives meaning to each phrase. See Appendix 1, Major Malfunction, for an example. » Analysis of quality. This is similar to seeing the aspects of a situation or thing, but attends to the good and bad of each aspect. Sometimes it can be useful to draw the results as a double-side bar chart; see 'Aspect Tree'. This is a double-sided bar chart which is very good for showing both good and bad together, such as aspects of success and failure of an IS, or benefit and detrimental impact. This is shown in the HLC chapter. » Using aspects as a checklist. Here we look to see whether any aspects are being overlooked, or whether any are being given undue importance. See 'Aspects as Checklist' below. This involves identifying exactly what we have in each aspect, and looking for aspects that are either under- or over-represented. Its use is illustrated in the HCI chapter to evaluate Web Design Guidelines. 4.7 CONCLUSION Winograd [2006,p.73] says "The field of interaction design is in its infancy and we are still struggling with finding the appropriate foundational questions and concerns for new kinds of interactions." For most of the history of human factors in information systems, the emphasis has been on HCI. During the 1990s, attention was given to HLC, but very few put this together with HCI. This is one feature of what is taught in this module, that HCI and HLC are taught side by side and using the same set of concepts (the aspects). Another feature of this module is its attention to ERM as separate from HCI and HLC. It is ERM that is necessary if we are to understand a field that is becoming increasingly important: virtual reality, such as occurs in computer games. The benefits of this framework is that it not only enables but encourages us to address a wide range of issues sensitively and in new ways. Yet it also provides the means to examine each in depth, fully aware of all the other issues. So this framework will help form more useful guidelines to get the best out of IS, and will reduce the detrimental impact of unexpected repercussions of IS use. It is an ethical framework because it provides a broader understanding of what is to be sought or avoided. It is holistic because it provides a means to see the points of contact and conflict between areas. Some links were made to other areas, ensuring coherence with them. This framework does not necessarily replace others such as those by Walsham [2001] and Winograd and Flores [1986], but can critique, underpin and enrich them. Copyright (c) Andrew Basden, 20 September 2008, 21 September 2009, 20 September 2010.