CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN USE OF COMPUTERS I-1. RICH MEDIA: HUC AND CMM Welcome to the Rich Media module, in which two main themes will be addressed: » CMM: Computer Multimedia and its design and creation » HUC: Human Use of Computers Learning about Computer Multimedia will be undertaken mainly through practical development. (In these notes we differentiate Computer Multimedia from original artistic multimedia, which did not use computers but rather brought together such things as poetry, music and dance.) However, to design a good CMM application you need to understand HUC deeply. This document is the module handbook, and mainly teaches about HUC. In it you will learn about how human beings engage with ICT (information and communications technology), mainly that which involves computing devices. This is why we call it 'Human Use of Computers'. Here, briefly, is what each is concerned with: » HUC on its own: how human beings engage with ICT in various ways » CMM on its own: bringing various media together especially to present information or create a virtual environment » HUC in service of CMM: how to make your multimedia usable, informative and useful » CMM in service of HUC: how to make use of computers or ICT more effective, innovative and natural. These lecture notes are about HUC, not CMM, but reference will be made to its relationship with CMM. I-1.1 Why HUC and CMM are Important Understanding both CMM and HUC has become important in devising good applications, whether these are web pages, mobile phones or other software and hardware. » Understanding CMM can make them attractive and effective. » Understanding HUC can make them useful, informative and easy to use. Ordinary users today (of mobile phones, tablets, laptops, etc.) are so used to good CMM and HUC that they take it for granted. But there is always room for improvement. In this module we 'lift the lid' of these devices to try to understand what makes them so good that these are taken for granted. We seek to understand the principles that make HUC and CMM good. This will help you respect more the decades' of work that has made them possible, and also might help you find principles by which to propose your own new innovative ideas in HUC and CMM. In addition, understanding the principles of HUC and CMM can help you prepare better presentations. I-1.2 What Kinds of Computer? What kind of computers are we talking about? The material in this module is designed to cover all kinds. Here are some: » mobile phones, smart phones » tablets (pads, slates) » laptops » desktops » mainframes » minicomputers » SatNavs » servers » computers in home equipment » public computer systems such as railway station sign boards » public information kiosks » and kinds yet to be developed in the future that cannot even be imagined today. To achieve this openness to the future (future-proofness) we approach the topic of rich media and human use of computers in a different way - a way that emphasises general principles rather than specific theories - and yet is very applicable to everyday experience. I-1.3 Human Use of Computers (HUC) When I was working in the chemical industry in the early 1980s, my manager had been given a top-of-the-range PC, had attended training courses on how to use its software, but commented: "I know how to use it, and it's easy to use - but what the heck do I use it for?" This epitomises the difference between ease of use and usefulness. Just making software (or a website) easy to use does not bring business benefits. This module aims to help you understand human factors of computers or information systems - of which there are many. Nowadays we all use computers in our lives, whether we are aware of it or not, for example the computer on our desk (most obvious), our mobile phone (which contains a powerful computer) and, least obvious, a lot of today's equipment like DVD players and cars contain computers. {*** Exercise: Think about your use of a piece of ICT equipment (e.g. your mobile phone or your computer) for a moment, then continue reading. ***} What did you think about? » The information in it, such as what is shown on screen? (e.g. "I must change my friend to their new number") » How you use it in life? (e.g. when you last rang your friend or they rang you) » The usesr interface: buttons and screen? (e.g. "That button is getting unreliable", "This device is slow!") {*** Note: Occastionally you will find a small piece enclosed in curly brackets and asterisks like this. These are exercises or extra things for you to think about. You are strongly recommended to do as many as you can, because they are designed to help you think and internalise what is taught here. Many of them will help you in exams. In addition, at the end of some sections, you will find an entry with Examples, Exercises, Design tips and Going Deeper. ***} I-1.4 Three Branches of HUC Terry Winograd, a pioneer of understanding HUC, [Winograd 2006,p.73] says "The field of interaction design is in its infancy and we are still struggling with finding the appropriate foundational questions and concerns for new kinds of interactions." This is a surprising thing to hear in 2006 because HUC has been studied and creatively designed for 30 years. But most of that work has focused on user interface, being in the Human Computer Interaction (HCI) community, which focuses on ease of use> Terry Winograd is from that community. We call this or Human Computer Interaction (HCI), or, because we want to go wider than just the screen, we call it Engaging with the Technology (EwT), and usually put the two together as EwT/HCI. During the 1990s there has been some interest in a different community, the Information Systems community, in what Davis [1989] calls 'Perceived Usefulness' in contrast to 'Perceived Ease of Use'. He was interested in detemcining what made people accept and adopt new ICT. Here we call this Human Living with Computers, because it goes beyond usefulness. Useful is a concept that is only meaningful in relation to a task, but is playing a computer game or enjoying social networking 'useful'? We want to be able to consider such uses too, so we call it 'Human Living with Computers', HLC. But there is one engagement in HUC that is not well covered by these, what we call 'Engaging with Meaningful Content' (EMC). This is found in computer games and virtual reality for example, where we engage with the content found in the user interface and what it means to us - sometimes fictitious, sometimes not. This module recognises three distinct kinds of interaction, three different ways in which we relate to the computer: » EMC: engagement with meaningful content: how we engage with the meaningful information the computer contains or delivers to us . This is studied by the virtual reality and computer games communities » HLC: human living with compuers: how computers or ICT can help or hinder our daily lives. This is studied by the Information Systems community. » EwT/HCI: engaging with the technology / human-computer interaction: how we interact with the technology via a user interface. This is studied by the Human Computer Interaction community. The relationship between them is that together they constitute (make up) HUC: HUC = EMC + HLC + EwT/HCI. NOTE: In older versions, and also Basden [2008], EMC (engaging with meaningful content) is called ERM (engagement with represented meaning) or ERC (engagement with represented content). It was Nick Breems, of Dordt College, USA, who suggested EMC as the better term. {*** Think: Did you think about your use of ICT, as requested above? Can you see each of these in your use of it? When you are entering a number into your mobile phone, you might be thinking in any of the above ways: » EMC: thinking of what this information means: who this number is for? or trying to remember the number for the person you want to contact? » HLC: thinking of what you want to say to this person? » EwT/HCI: thinking about pressing the right keys so you don't make a mistake in entering the number? See how it could be any of these three at different times. ***} One feature that is nearly unique in the approach we take here is that EwT/HCI, EMC and HLC are taught side by side. Most textbooks focus mainly on EeT/HCI. It is EMC that is necessary if we are to understand a field that is becoming increasingly important: virtual reality, such as occurs in computer games. I-1.5 EwT/HCI, EMC and HLC Examples Example 1. Medical database used by nurses. Imagine you are a nurse using a medical database as you (a nurse) try to find out details about a patient you are treating. What do you experience? Here are some possibilities: » "I don't like the colours on the screen!" » "Oh dear, this system is so slow today!" » "But at least the data is accurate and up-to-date, I suppose." » "What's this number here in the corner for? What does it mean; never noticed it before." » "And what does that icon mean?" » "I see this patient is 56 and yet he was given xxx drug last year!" [knows that xxx is not good for that age group] » "I tried to see the doctor about that, but she was not available, so I had to wait ages. How annoying!" Think: The first four experiences, though different among themselves, are different in a deeper way from the sixth and seventh, with the fifth somewhere in between. The first four and the fifth are EwT/HCI, the sixth is EMC, and the seventh is HLC. Example 2. Playing a computer game. » You see a screen in front of you, with various colours and shapes. » You hold a mouse, move it and click its buttons. » You see various shapes and words on the screen. » You find the colour scheme on the screen quite unpleasant - all dark browns. » You are exploring a cave. » A dragon appears round the corner, breathing flames. » You are fighting the dragon, and get a bit burned. You first fire an arrow and miss. So you use your sword with magic power that fills the dragon with fear. You use a wand of frost which is effective against the dragon. » Eventually you manage to defeat the dragon, and find a jewel dropped where it died. But you are so hurt that you must rest for a while to recover, and you heal your wounds. » The fight with the dragon took so long that you missed your train which would have taken you to an interview for a job you wanted. How annoying! » As a result, you lose the job! Maybe you decide never again to waste time playing computer games? {*** Exercise: Which of those are EwT/HCI, which are EMC, and which are HLC? ***} Notice how the same differences can be found whether it is a 'boring' piece of functional software like the nurse's use of the patient database, or a computer game. Whatever type of computer system you are using, you have many and diverse experiences of it. In this module we seek to understand these, in order that: » you can evaluate people's use of IS (information systems) » you can see how to improve use of IS » you can design better IS » or you can just understand something of what is going on. I-1.6 Thinking about the Examples The difference between pushing a mouse and appreciating colour schemes or reading data off a screen will be considered later. But the difference between these, and fighting a dragon or finding out about a patient, and what you do in real life, will be discussed here. Notice how the nurse using a patient database and you playing a computer game have more or less the same three basic types of experience. One is an experience of the user interface, or the interaction with the computer, reading symbols off the screen that mean something. The next is an experience of the meaning-content of the database or game, what the symbols mean. The third is an experience of how real life is affected by using the IS. In this module we will call them: » Engaging with the Technology / Human-computer interaction (EwT/HCI), where we take into account the relationship between the human user and the computer; in the cases above, EwT/HCI involves: - Seeing a screen - Moving a mouse - Reading numbers etc. - Appreciating the colour scheme - and a lot more. » Engagement with represented meaning (EMC), where we take into account how the humans involved understand the meaningful information conveyed to them by the computer and how they get involved with this information; in the cases above, EMC involves: - Knowing what drugs the patient is on - Knowing where you are in the cave (or not) - Seeing a dragon appear - Realising you must fight - Using all your skill and equipment to fight - Your victory and the winning of the jewel - Your resting and recovering after the fight - and a lot more. » Human living with computers (HLC), where we take into account the lives of users and other stakeholders, including their work life and other parts of their lives; in the cases above, HLC involves: - Trying to contact the doctor - Feeling annoyed when you must wait - Spending a long time playing the game - Missing the train - Feeling annoyed that you missed the train - Losing the job, and feeling angry with yourself. {*** Exercise: The next time you use an IS look at it in these three ways, and write down your experiences. This can provide useful material for your exam. ***} In this module, we will examine the structure of each and the norms that guide each, and distinguish good from bad versions of each. This will give you a very rich understanding of IS in business or elsewhere (such as the home). Link with Extant Literature: Read Davis [1989] and see how he differentiates ease of use (EwT/HCI) from usefulness (HLC). Notice how he does not yet recognise EMC. I-1.7 Learning to Use Computer Devices and Systems Not only using ICT devices and systems involves these three ways of functioning, but so does learning to use it. On encountering a new device, first we have to learn how to engage with the technology (EwT/HCI). We have to know how to set it up, how to start it (connect it up, put the battery in and switch it on if hardware, run and perhaps configure it if software). Then we have to know what the user interface contains, which bits on the screen are sensitive to our interaction and which are not. We have to learn how to enter information, take actions, and how to get help. We might call this 'learning to drive' the device or system. Learning the EwT and especially the HCI is greatly facilitated if all applications have a standard style of user interface. Apple and Microsoft Windows gave importance to this, while the previous platforms, such as Amiga, allowed developers much more freedom to design their own user interfaces, and so we have to learn how to drive each application separately. It was rather a pain - but then it also made some things much more intuitive. Once we are familiar with driving the system, we then have to learn the ways in which the information presented to us is meaningful as content (EMC). If it is a computer game, we have to learn what the various maps (of the terrain), gauges (e.g. bars, dials), figures (e.g. strength, damage, number of items), colours (e.g. red when resources have reached critical low) etc. refer to, and we learn how to access other information that we need to engage with. We have to learn more complex things like behaviour, often from friend who already know the game, for example, "When you come to this tree, then watch out and get ready because a hard enemy will soon arrive." In a mobile device, we soon learn how to find out how low the battery is or the phone signal. Also, we have to learn how to enter information that we want, what information to enter, where to enter it, its format, etc. and what we can get the application to do and how to get it to do exactly what we want. We have to learn where it makes assumptions that are unhelpful to us, and how to correct those assumptions. In all this, we are learning to engage with the meaningful content. Likening it to learning how to drive, we might call this 'learning the road signs'. Once we can engage well with the information, we then have to learn how to use the device as part of our lives: HLC. For example, once we have learnt how to use Twitter at those two levels, and perhaps have had a bit of fun trying to send and receive and forward messages, we then have to learn and explore how it might be useful in various way in our lives. We can continue using Twitter for fun, but would soon get bored. Perhaps we begin to use it to annoy others. Or - better - we begin using it to send encouraging messages to friends, or to contribute to discussions on various topics, or to broadcast a message that we feel passionate about. Examples: See above for some examples in each of EwT/HCI, EMC and HLC. Exercises: » EwT/HCI: Next time you obtain a new piece of hardware, take note of the steps you go through. Next time you obtain a new application, take note of what you find yourself learning as you learn to drive it - things like positions of things you need, how to operate them, and so on. » EMC: Then, take note of what you learn about what information the application offers you, where you can find it, what it means, and what information or commands you give it in return. Take note of the order in which you learn these things. » HLC: Then, take note of how you begin to use it 'for real' in your life, what you use it for, and what benefit or pain you gain from using it. How do I design for this?: Above all, recognise that the user must learn all three ways of engaging with what you are designing. Maybe offer them three levels of help: one for how to drive it (EwT/HCI), one for how to use it with typical and not-so-typical information (EMC) and one with tips for how to get the best our of it in life. Going deeper (Extant ideas): Jenny Preece's [1994] book Human Computer Interaction has several good pieces on learning (see her index). I-2. THE 'FLAVOUR' OF THESE LECTURES I would like, first, to explain what this is all about. This part of this module is rather different from other modules, in that it offers ways of thinking and seeing things, rather than theories. Many students in the past have found this module exciting and stimulating. I trust you will too. Read on ... Some students find what is taught here more challenging than other modules but they find it more exciting and interesting. There are two reasons for this: it is unlike many modules in being a 'bridge' between the technical and the non-technical (business or social- organizational) issues of the degree and it is unlike some other modules in offering frameworks for thinking instead of ready-made solutions. The fact that it is different from other modules is taken into account when examination papers and assignments are marked, so that no student should feel at a disadvantage. I-2.1 Everyday Experience of the Human Being Many texts on human factors or user interface teach the prevailing accepted theories about these topics. Yes, we will do some of that here, but more importantly, we will try to take an everyday attitude. We will try to understand the everyday experiences we have of computers and ICT, in each of EwT/HCI, EMC and HLC. This means placing the human being in the centre. What does this entail? In this module we mean several things. One is the workings of the individual user of the computer or ICT, which is covered by the sciences of psychology. Another is the human user as a whole person in a social context, with purposes, tasks and roles, constrained by limited resources, with hopes and fears, with attitude and vision. We will find, however, that what we call the lingual aspect of life, our ability to represent meaning in symbols is central; after all, we all want to communicate. We give a broad overview of the topics at various levels, and pointers for those who are interested in understanding the human user in more detail. How do EwT/HCI, EMC and HLC work together as part of the human activity that uses computers or ICT? This is discussed towards the end, but briefly: In interacting with the machine (EwT/HCI) especially lingually we engage with what the symbols on screen mean (EMC) and, as a result, we do things in our lives (HLC): EwT/HCI ---> EMC ---> HLC. It is HLC that is most important, the other two servicing it. I-2.2 Bridge Between ICT and its Application This module does not lie neatly in either the social or 'soft' side or the technical or 'hard' side of the degree course. Rather, it is a bridge between them, and the module aims to give the student an understanding of this bridge. This is important in many real-life applications of information technology, where the higher quality consultants and designers must be aware not only of both 'hard' and 'soft' issues, but also of how they link, so that they can bring true benefit in a climate in which up to 90 % of other information systems fail. The challenge of this module for the student is to understand the bridge. The content of this module is heavily influenced, not by standard human computer interaction academic frameworks but by the experience the course deliverer gained in 14 years of practice applying information systems in the pharmaceutical, health, chemical and construction sectors. It is a bridge because both the technical and non-technical parts share the same way of thinking: multi-aspectual human functioning, which is explained in chapter II. I-2.3 The Module as Framework According to Lyytinen and Hirschheim [1987] at least 50% of information systems fail, 60% to Cotterill and Law [1993], 50%, to Whyte and Bytheway [1996], 60% to Butterfield and Pendegraft [1996], and 75% to Gladden [1982]. What is going on, and how do we prevent failure and achieve success? This is what this module wants to help you understand. The module is designed, not to give ready-mode solutions, not to give training in, for example, web page design, but rather to give a framework in which the student can develop an understanding of human factors of information systems that will remain valid and useful over the longer temc. For example, when the fashion for web page design has passed, what then? You need the kind of understanding and 'wisdom' that will carry over into the next that thing that you find round the corner. It is the intention of this module to offer you something to help you understand that. In it you will find frameworks for understanding: » everyday experience as multi-aspectual human functioning » the three main types of multi-aspectual functioning that constitute human use of computers: EMC, HLC, EwT/HCI, » the nature of EMC, and what makes for a good quality application, » the nature of HLC, and how to tackle success and failure, even if these are unexpected repercussions, indirect or long-temc, » the nature of EwT/HCI, and what makes it good. Using such frameworks for understanding, and the concepts and guidelines attached to them, the student can: a) find and develop creative solutions, without, on the one hand, being overly constrained by today's (or yesterday's) practice, and on the other being unprincipled, b) learn the art of screen design when that is needed, and be able to assess the quality and appropriateness of the material learned, c) apply the whole framework across the wide range of applications that will be encountered in 'real life' once the student has graduated. I trust you will enjoy the module, and gain benefit therefrom that will remain with you years after you have left the University. I-2.4 What is Taught about HUC The rest of the Introduction explains about the HUC part of this module. Then chapter II looks at the human being who uses the computer, and takes note of types or aspects of human functioning, using philosophy. Chapter III looks at EwT/HCI. Chapter IV looks at EMC. Chapter V looks at HLC. Chapter VI looks at how EwT/HCI, EMC and HLC work together, which leads into some issues which some think are 'advanced'. Finally, chapter VII reviews (this part of) the module. In particular, we notice that we have been using philosophy! We separate out EwT/HCI, EMC and HLC more precisely, then recombine them at the end. I-3. A BIT OF HISTORY Here is a bit of history of HUC. The history has three types of player: computer builders, software researchers and users. The software research in one era would prepare the ground for the next. What was learned in each era is still valid and important, because it formed the foundation for all later ones. You should not see what was learned in earlier eras as 'old fashioned' and to be left behind. In the 1960s and 1970s there was the computer. A gigantic beast into which data was fed in batches and out of which data was printed, operated by specially-trained people. » Much software research was about programming and knowledge representation languages and algorithms, and how to make computers faster. It also began to investigate ways of interaction between computer and user. » Still useful today: Keyboards for entering text. Principles of knowledge representation and programming languages. In the 1970s and 1980s there was interaction. Users could interact with the beast, via temcinals - slow 'teletypewriters (TTs)' in the 1980s and faster 'visual display units (VDUs) in the 1908s. In the 1970s, interaction was by text, often by a sequence of questions and answers, or by commands and results. In the 1980s, interaction was more by 'direct manipulation' using mouse and graphics. In the 1980s the personal computer became feasible, some for organisational (business) use, some for home use ('home computing', 'amateur computing', 'games computing'). »Much software research was about the user interface (UI), or human-computer interaction (EwT/HCI), and how to achieve graphics, animation and sound. Academic researchers dismissed games computing as beneath their interest and ignored it, but many of the innovations in EwT/HCI were devised by creative games programmers. Applications widened beyond business into art and leisure. The Apple Macintosh had great EwT/HCI and appealed to the artistic. The Atari and Amiga dominated the games and home markets. » Still useful today: Styles and technologies for EwT/HCI, such as mouse (or pad), joystick/pad and screen. The 'desktop' style of user interface. In the 1980s and 1990s three things emerged. In the 1980s and 1990s there was computer multimedia (CMM). (Multimedia as such, had been going for decades, in which readings, poetry, music, dance, etc. were brought together.) In computer multimedia (which we look at in this module) text, graphics, animation, video and sound began to be used together. At first, this was mainly in games computing, in order to give the games-player a good experience. But in the late 1990s Microsoft caught on to this and tried to convince us, with Window 1995, that multimedia was new! » Much software research was undertaken by creative games companies. But increasingly academic departments began to take computer multimedia seriously. » Still useful today: CMM technologies and techniques. In the 1990s there was proximal user interface. Interaction with the computer became more 'proximal', in which the interface became so natural that users no longer needed to think about it. No longer was EwT/HCI seen as the user issuing commands to distinct objects; instead, the user was able to forget about the tool and get on with their 'job', whether this was drawing a graphic, playing a game or entering knowledge into a knowledge base. ICT became more 'usable' and 'easy to use'. Immersion in virtual reality became feasible. Games boxes became popular. » Key publications: Winograd & Flores [1986] 'Understanding Computers and Cognition', Norman [1990] 'Why interfaces don't work'. » Research was into how to make interaction more natural or 'proximal'. See Basden & Hibberd [1996] and Basden, Brown, Tetlow, Hibberd & Brandon [1996]. » Still useful today: Ideas for making interaction more natural, for example in mobile phones and Apple technology. Games boxes. In the 1980s and 1990s there was increasing recognition of the difference between usability and usefulness, such as in business [Landauer 1996]. And between 'wow' graphics in a game (which got the game sold) and good gameplay (which gave lasting satisfaction and fun). Perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness became recognised as main detemciners of whether ICT was adopted in organisations [Davis 1989]. In parallel with this, there was a shift of interest from the individual user to the organisation, and how ICT serves the organisation in temcs of usefulness or 'productivity' etc. [Landauer 1996] or 'emancipation' [Hirschheim, Klein & Lyytinen 1995]. » Key publication: Davis [1989] 'Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology'. Landauer [1996] 'The trouble with computers: Usefulness, usability and productivity'. Hirshheim, Klein & Lyytinen [1995] 'Information Systems Development and Data Modelling: Conceptual and Philosophical Foundations'. » Research: Trying to understand what usefulness is, and how it differs from usability. Also, in IS research, a growing interest in philosophical paradigms, which detemcine how we see HUC. » Still useful today: The importance of usefulness in people's lives. » Relevance to these lectures: We explore usefulness under HLC: human living with computers, and ease of use under EwT/HCI. But Davis and Langauer and others did not see the difference between EwT/HCI and EMC - engaging with the technology and engaging with the meaning of information. In the 1990s and 2000s the world has been concerned about 'virtual reality', which is important in computer games and in Internet-mediated social networking. In a computer game, we fight dragons etc., not just interact with colours and shapes on the screen. In the Second Life virtual world, we engage with avatars. On social networking sites we engage, not directly with our friends but with information about them as though they are our friends. How do we know what these people are really like? In similar vein, how do we know who has really sent us an email that promises wonderful things? And, in such a mundane thing as a database, how do we know whether the information is true or not? This is the issue of EMC: engaging with represented meaning. » Research: How make information work for us. Information fulfilment [Burke, 2009]. » Useful today: The world is just waking up to EMC as a separate issue. In the 1990s and 2000s computers became connected to the Internet and ICT became mobile (e.g. mobile phones). Web browsing became important to find information. It was recognised that meaning represented 'in' a computer could not stand alone, but had to refer beyond itself to all other meaning represented on other computers the world over - hence the World Wide Web, and such things as Wikipedia. The Internet also became useful for delivery - for shopping etc. - for collective action to build information resources (such as Wikepedia and the host of 'applications' that make Facebook exciting) - and for social networking. HUC and CMM became part of everyday life of ordinary people, such that they no longer think of it as 'special'. » Key publications: Too many to name. » Research: Into connectivity and mobility. Into the dramatic effect of ordinary people using ICT. I-P.S. An Apology and Explanation This version of the module is relatively new. For the past 15 years, I based the module on the notion of levels of description of computer systems. But, this became rather creaky at its joints, and during 2008 I worked out a new and better way of understanding Human Factors and User Interface, and discussed that in a new book, 'Philosophical Frameworks for Understanding Information Systems'. I have rewritten the module to take advantage of this material. Some of the text here is taken from the book, while some is taken from the old version of the module. I have tried to make sure that it has been knitted together properly, but there might be some loose ends. I apologise if you find any that confuse you. Please point them out to me, and be patient. I will explain them. In particular, if I talk about levels, I mean aspects. Here is a table of their correlation, to which you might like to refer if you find any: » ML (material level) = physical aspect » HL (hardware level) = organic aspect » BL (bit level) = psychic aspect » SL (symbol level) = analytic and formative aspects » KL (knowledge level) = lingual aspect » TL (tacit level) = social aspect. Copyright (c) Andrew Basden & Janice Whatley. 21 September 2009, 28 January 2010, RM: 20 September 2010, 14 September 2011, 17 September 2012.